Introduction

Chapter 1. Feudalism

1The essence and emergence of feudalism

2 Stages of development of the feudal system in Western Europe. Feudal hierarchy

Chapter 2. Features of feudal land tenure

1 Traits of feudal land tenure

2 Forms of feudal land tenure

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The relevance of this work lies in the fact that feudalism is an important and interesting stage. In the Middle Ages, the slave system was replaced by a new stage in the development of society - feudalism. And it is precisely after this that the next stage of capitalism follows.

The purpose of this course work is to develop and deepen historical and legal knowledge on the main and most controversial, problematic issues during feudalism, the emergence and formation, as well as the stages of development and decline of feudalism, the study of the main aspects of this topic

Objectives of this work:

consider the rise of feudalism;

determine the main features and forms of feudal land tenure in Western Europe;

analyze the stages of development of feudalism;

consider the transition of feudalism to capitalism.

The methodological basis of this work was the work of O. A. Zhidkova, N. A. Krasheninnikova, Gurevich A. Ya., Dubrovsky I. V., Korsunsky A. R., Chernilovsky Z. M.,

The word feudalism, feudal lord, comes from the feud, which can be explained as hereditary land property, which was given under the condition of military service. Feudalism is a stage in the historical development of society, based on the monopoly property of feudal lords or feudal states on land and the personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords. In many textbooks, the difference between feudalism and the slave system is explained by the fact that a slave could be killed, and a feudal-dependent peasant could only be sold and bought. Feudalism put an end to the obsolete slave system, which at that time was already in decline. People who lived for years in hopeless slavery were no longer interested in their work, spoiled the tools of labor and raised riots. Feudalism gave them a certain degree of freedom and benefits. New production methods appeared - workshops. Crafts developed, which led to the development of trade between cities. Development also began in the field of agriculture. However, this gradually brings feudalism into decline. The development of agriculture and handicrafts led to the formation of stable market relations between the individual territories of the states. Basically, trade developed between the city and the surrounding villages, and the form of organization was city markets, rural fairs. Trade between different localities took place mainly at regional fairs. However, domestic trade was restrained by the weak purchasing power of the peasants and feudal fragmentation, when crossing the borders of each lord, they collected duties, lack of roads and security. But it was feudalism that allowed future capitalists, feudal lords and merchants who managed to make money during this period and accumulate their capital to stand out. And thanks to the trade that developed at such a pace, it allowed them to take their cell. The trail of feudalism in history is not unimportant. And the crisis that feudalism experienced and its further decline was necessary for further development. And the feudal land tenure that took shape at that time and the way of life formed the basis of more progressive relations and differed from slaveholding relations strikingly. Therefore, I believe that it was in the field of land economy, crafts and trade that feudalism played its progressive and important role at that time.

Chapter 1. Feudalism

.1 The essence of feudalism

The concept of "feudalism" arose in France before the revolution, around the end of the 18th century, and meant at that time the so-called "Old Order" (that is, monarchy (absolute) or the government of the nobility). Feudalism at that time was seen as a social and economic reformation, which was the forerunner of the well-known capitalism. In our time, in history, feudalism is considered such a social system. It was only in the Middle Ages, or rather in Central and Western Europe. However, you can also find something similar in other eras and in other parts of the world.

The basis of feudalism includes relations that are called interpersonal, that is, between a lord and a vassal, a suzerain and a subject, a peasant and a person who has a lot of land. In Feudalism, there is legal injustice, in other words, inequality, which was enshrined in law, and a knightly army organization. The main basis of feudalism was religion. Namely, Christianity. And it showed the whole character of the Middle Ages, the culture of that time. Feudalism took shape in the fifth-ninth centuries, when the barbarians conquered the well-known Roman Empire, which was very strong. The period of prosperity, somewhere in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries, then the large cities and their entire population were politically and economically strengthened, the so-called estate-representative communities, for example, the English parliament, were formed, and the estate monarchy was forced to take into account not only the interests of the nobility, but also all other members of society.

The secular monarchy opposed the so-called papacy, and this created the opportunity to create and assert all its rights and its freedom, and over time, it undermined feudalism, that is, its system and main concepts, so to speak. The urban economy developed quite rapidly, and this undermined the basis of the government of the aristocracy, or rather the natural and economic foundations, but the heresy grew into a reformation that took place in the 16th century, and it was due to the growth of freedom of thought. In connection with the renewed ethics and the new value system of Protestantism, he helped to develop all entrepreneurs with their activities, which were of a capitalist type. Well, the revolution that took place in the 16-18 centuries helped the end of feudalism.

The rise of feudalism

It is generally accepted that feudalism as a special socio-economic formation arose in Western Europe on the basis of the collapse of the slave system of the ancient world and the fall of the Roman slave state as a result of the slave revolution and the conquest of the Roman Empire by the Germans. The usual idea that the slave system is directly replaced by the feudal system is not entirely accurate. More often, the feudal system arose anew from the primitive communal system. The peoples who conquered Rome were at the stage of the primitive communal system and did not adopt the Roman slave-owning orders. Only a few centuries later did they have a class society, but already in the form of feudalism.

Elements of feudalism began to take shape even in the depths of the economic system of the late period of the Roman Empire and in the society of the ancient Germans of the 2nd-3rd centuries. But feudalism became the dominant type of social relations only from the 5th-6th centuries. as a result of the interaction of the socio-economic conditions that existed in the Roman Empire, with the new conditions that the conquerors brought with them. Feudalism was not at all transferred ready-made from Germany. Its origin is rooted in the military organization of the barbarian troops during the conquest itself, which only after the conquest, thanks to the influence of the productive forces found in the conquered countries, developed into real feudalism. The new forms of the socio-economic system that arose in the place of the Roman slave-owning society had deep roots both in the old society of Rome itself and among the peoples who conquered it. In the Roman Empire, the crisis of a large slave economy was already in the 1st-2nd centuries. n. NS. reached the greatest strength. With the preservation of large land ownership in the hands of a small number of Roman magnates, the latter, due to the extremely low productivity of slave labor, begin to break up their lands into small parcels and plant slaves and free farmers on them. Instead of a large slave economy, the colonate thus arises as one of the earliest forms of new social relations - relations of small agricultural producers, who still retained some elements of personal and economic freedom in comparison with slavery, but were attached to the owner's land and paid rent in kind and labor to the landowner. In other words, the columns "... were the predecessors of the medieval serfs." Due to the economic disintegration of the slave economy in Rome, its economic and political system was finally destroyed by the uprisings of millions of slaves. All this facilitated the conquest of the empire by the Germans, putting an end to the slave society. But the new forms of social relations were not brought by the Germans "ready", but, on the contrary, their "form of society" had to change in accordance with the level of the productive forces of the conquered country. building. But, already by the time of their first penetrations into the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes were losing their ancestral way of life and passed to the territorial community-mark. Military movements and conquests led them to the allocation of a military tribal aristocracy, the formation of military squads. The former communal lands were seized by the vigilantes, private land ownership arose, the exploitation of slaves, planted on the land. These new relationships began to intensify and carry over to Roman soil as Germanic tribes began to settle in various parts of the former empire. The Germans "... as a reward for liberating the Romans from their own state ..." not only began to occupy free lands, but also took away from the former Roman owners two-thirds of their land - huge Roman latifundia with a mass of slaves sitting on them and columns. The division of lands took place in accordance with the orders of the clan system. Part of the land was left indivisibly in the possession of the entire clan and tribe, the rest (arable land, meadows) was distributed among individual members of the clan. This is how the German Mark community was transferred to the new conditions. But the separation of the military-tribal aristocracy and military squads, seizing large areas of land and large slave-owning Roman latifundia, contributed to the disintegration of communal ownership and the emergence of large private land property. At the same time, the Roman land nobility began to unite with the military nobility of the German warriors and leaders.

In some parts of the former empire, as in the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, the assimilation of conquerors with the defeated was most widespread and led to the assimilation of socio-economic relations by the Germans, the rudiments of serfdom and latifundial, vast estates specializing in the export fields of agriculture were called: growing grain, producing olive oil and winemaking.) the economy of the former empire. In the Frankish state, where the Roman influence was weaker and where the new Frankish tribes were less quickly assimilated with the Roman population, a vast layer of free peasantry remained for some time, and until the development of feudal-serf relations “between the Roman column and the new the serf was a free Frankish peasant. " Most fully Germanic land orders were preserved where, as in Britain, the German conquerors almost completely destroyed the former Celtic population of the country and introduced their own land use procedures, with a rapidly growing, however, inequality in it, with the allocation of tribal nobility (earls) and simple free farmers (Curls). With all the diversity in the development of feudal relations in various localities and countries, the further process everywhere consisted in the gradual enslavement of the remaining mass of the free rural population and in the development of the foundations of the feudal-serf economic system. With the fall of the slave economy and the disintegration of communal land forms on the basis of the emergence of property and land inequality in the land community, and then personal and economic dependence, and, finally, with the seizure of land by the conquerors, a complex and developed system of feudal land relations was created in the kingdoms of Western Europe. The entire social building, all social relations and the place in them of each individual are determined on the basis of land tenure and land "holding". Starting from the suzerain, the king, his entourage and larger and more powerful owners, all vassals dependent on them receive land in the feud, in the fief, that is, in the hereditary conditional possession, in a service award. A complex system of vassalage and vassal dependence, a hierarchy of higher and "noble" ruling classes permeates the entire society.

The development of feudal production relations ensured, first of all, a partial emancipation of the direct producer: since the serf can no longer be killed, although it is possible to sell and buy, since the serf has an economy and a family, he has some interest in work, shows some initiative in work required by new productive forces. The basis of feudal production relations was the ownership of the feudal lords to the main means of agricultural production, land, and the lack of ownership of land by workers. Along with this main feature, the feudal form of ownership of the means of production is also characterized by the incomplete ownership of the feudal lord to the worker (non-economic coercion) and the ownership of some of the tools and means based on personal labor of the workers of production themselves, i.e., peasants and artisans. The position in production and the relationship between the main classes of feudal society: feudal lords and peasants followed from the feudal form of ownership.

Feudal lords in one form or another endowed the peasants with land and forced them to work for themselves, appropriating part of their labor or products of labor in the form of feudal rent (duties). Peasants and artisans in the broad sense of the word belonged to the same class of feudal society, their relationship was not antagonistic. Classes and social groups under feudalism took the form of estates, and the form of distribution of production products entirely depended on the position and relationships of social groups in production. Early feudalism was characterized by the complete domination of a natural economy; with the development of handicrafts, commodity production became increasingly important in the city and countryside. The commodity production that existed under feudalism and served it, despite the fact that it prepared some conditions for capitalist production, cannot be confused with capitalist commodity production.

The main form of exploitation under feudalism was feudal rent, which increased through the successive change of its three forms: labor (corvee), food (natural quitrent), and monetary (monetary quitrent). The late feudal corvée-cregustnic system in the countries of Eastern Europe is not a simple return to the first form, but also carries the features of the third form: production for the market. With the emergence of manufacture (16th century) in the bowels of feudal society, an ever-deeper contradiction began to develop between the new character of the productive forces and feudal production relations, which were becoming a brake on their development. The so-called primitive accumulation prepares the emergence of a class of wage workers and a class of capitalists.

In accordance with the class, antagonistic nature of the feudal economy, the whole life of feudal society was permeated with class struggle. Above the feudal basis towered over the corresponding superstructure - the feudal state, the church, the feudal ideology, the superstructure, which actively served the ruling class, helping to suppress the struggle of the working people against feudal exploitation. The feudal state, as a rule, goes through a series of stages - from political fragmentation ("estate-state"), through the estate monarchy to an absolute monarchy (autocracy). The dominant form of ideology under feudalism was religion

The intensified class struggle made it possible for the young bourgeoisie, leading the uprisings of the peasants and the plebeian elements of the cities, to seize power and overthrow the feudal production relations. Bourgeois revolutions in the Netherlands in the 16th century, in England in the 17th century, in France in the 18th century. ensured the domination of the then advanced bourgeois class and brought production relations in line with the nature of the productive forces.

At present, the remnants of feudalism are supported and strengthened by the imperialist bourgeoisie. The remnants of feudalism are very significant in many capitalist countries. In the countries of people's democracies, these vestiges have been resolutely eliminated through democratic agrarian reforms. In colonial and dependent countries the peoples are fighting feudalism and imperialism at the same time; each blow to feudalism is at the same time a blow to imperialism.

1.2 Stages of development of the feudal system in Western Europe

The feudal system went through three stages in its development:

Early Middle Ages (V - X centuries). During this period, the first signs of feudalism appeared: the land was concentrated among the upper strata of society, i.e. large feudal property was formed, a layer of dependent peasantry was formed, vassal relations were established, the peasants lost their personal freedom. This period is characterized by feudal fragmentation and internecine wars of kings and feudal lords, the predominance of the agricultural sector, poor development of crafts and trade, a low level of understanding of the outside world (inferior even to ancient knowledge).

The largest feudal lord in Europe was the Christian church, whose ministers took an active part in the economic and political life of the country. Religious dogmas influenced the economic life of the country: concern for worldly goods, wealth is sinful, since the true goal of the believer is the kingdom of heaven; all people are equal before God, so everyone had to work, agriculture was considered the most honorable occupation, it was a sin for a Christian to engage in trade. In addition, the constant expectation of the end of the world paralyzed business activity.

The High Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries) is the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. During this period, not only agriculture was successfully developing, but also cities were being revived, turning into centers of handicrafts and trade. The growth of agricultural productivity created a surplus of products in the village, and it became possible to single out a group of people engaged in handicrafts, exchanging their products for agricultural products. Over time, rural local artisans turned into professionals working to order, and the boundaries of the estate became narrow for them, so they began to form their own settlements. The optimal place for the production and sale of handicraft products was to ensure an unhindered meeting of the seller and the buyer, water supply, protection. Therefore, all medieval cities stand on rivers or lakes, protected by fortress walls, and they always have a bridge. Despite overcrowding, epidemics, and insecurity from fires, cities have gained a great advantage over the countryside - walls and a market. The walls protected from the tyranny of the feudal lord, a person who lived in the city for one year and one day was considered free from feudal dependence. The market provided the city with the economic management of the feudal village: it set prices, so the feudal estate was adapted to the city market. It was the city that broke the closed nature of the subsistence economy, creating an open economy, drawing the producers of the agricultural sector into commodity-money relations. It became the driving force behind the development of the economy thanks to its role as a market, a major trading hub.

During this period, many cities achieved independence, since the payment for land and the amount of duties performed in favor of the lords were very high. In their struggle, the cities relied on the support of kings who were interested in weakening the lords and who understood the role and importance of the city as a source of financial and human resources. By the beginning of the XIV century. most cities achieved independence from the lords, but power was in the hands of the urban aristocracy - large merchants, homeowners, usurers and landowners. As a result of the so-called "communal revolution", councils of self-government were created in them, which solved the main issues of the urban economy.

The basis of the city's life was commodity production - handicrafts and the sale of products. In the second half of the XIV century. there were up to 50 branches of production, 300 types of crafts, the most developed were cloth making, metalworking, the manufacture of linen and silk fabrics and dyes for them. Typography has become widespread.

As elsewhere in feudal Europe, the form of organization of handicraft production was a workshop, the organization of which was regulated by the charter; it forcibly united artisans of a particular industry within a given city. The system of craftsmen, apprentices, apprentices created an estate hierarchy in the workshops. The charter strictly regulated all conditions for the production and sale of products, prices; set the number of apprentices and apprentices, regulated the relationship between masters, apprentices and apprentices, the terms and conditions of apprenticeship; determined the volume and quality of products, their appearance, packaging; the length of the working day and the time and place of sale. The purpose of this organization was not to make a profit, but to earn a livelihood in conditions of simple reproduction, associated with the limited local market.

The craft workshops employed two or four people, not counting the master. The exception was made by more numerous construction organizations. There was no division of labor in the workshop, each worker produced the final product, so the requirements for professional skill were high. For example, when joining a blacksmith shop in Germany, it was necessary to make a horseshoe for a horse without taking a measurement. To do this kind of work required a lot of preparation.

At the same time, the workshops performed the functions of mutual aid funds, took care of widows and orphans, carried security and fire services, defended the walls of their hometown, and actively participated in religious life. Thus, during the heyday of the Middle Ages, the shop organization played a progressive role: it helped to improve the quality of products, its standardization, price stabilization, brought up responsibility for the final result, preparing highly qualified workers, taught them to be organized and disciplined.

The development of agriculture and handicrafts led to the formation of stable market relations between the individual territories of the states. Basically, trade developed between the city and the surrounding villages, and the form of organization was city markets, rural fairs. Trade between different localities took place mainly at regional fairs. However, domestic trade was held back by the weak purchasing power of the peasants; feudal fragmentation, when crossing the borders of each lord collected duties; lack of roads and safety. For example, when goods were transported along the Loire River in France, the duty was charged 70 times. For the purpose of extortion, landowners built bridges, ferries, and were directly involved in robbery of merchant carts.

For mutual protection on the way and in the markets, in order to eliminate mutual competition through agreements on the terms of sale (prices, measures of weight, length, etc.), merchants united in guilds. The most powerful of these were associations that monopolized the cloth trade. There were guilds of small traders who sold food supplies and everyday items.

In the XI-XV centuries. the greatest scope was reached by foreign trade, which took place in two main directions. The first is trade with the East, which was carried out by Italian cities, primarily Genoa and Venice. The merchants of these cities provided the crusaders with ships, which gave them the opportunity to freely enter the eastern ports, where they established their trading posts, and received various privileges. Venice, for example, was entitled to duty-free trade with all Greek cities. Italian merchants, having monopolized trade with the East, received fairly high incomes. The trading profit margin here was 25 - 40%. In Western Europe, luxury goods, spices were imported, the main consumers of which were the upper strata of the nobility, clergy, cities, and timber, metal, weapons, grain, tar, tar, ships were exported from this region. But over time, the Vatican banned the export of these goods, considering them strategic, so gold and silver were transported from Europe to the East.

The second direction of sea trade was the Northern Route, which connected Eastern and Western Europe across the Northern and Baltic Seas. This trade was monopolized by those who gained strength in the XIII century. Union of North German Merchants (Hansa). It included from 60 to 170 European cities. Hanseatic merchants imported grain, livestock, timber, leather, hemp, flax, wax, furs, metal products, and woolen fabrics to Europe. Thus, trade already "served" the needs of local producers and consumers, therefore it was of great importance for the economies of European countries, despite the fact that trade profit was only 5 - 8%. But the relatively low profit was offset by the volume of trade and significantly less risk.

At the intersection of the northern and southern trade routes, fairs were organized at which eastern and European goods met. The most famous and significant fairs were in France (Champagne County) and Flanders. At fairs, Italian merchants traded in oriental goods, French wine and cloth, German furs, linen fabrics, metal, English tin, lead, and wool. International fairs of this type became the basis for the emergence of commodity exchanges. The first of them appeared in 1406 in the Dutch city of Bruges. Later, commodity exchanges arose in Venice, Genoa, Florence.

However, the expansion of trade, especially foreign trade, required more and more means of circulation. The main problems of the development of the monetary system during the Middle Ages were: lack of precious metals (gold and silver) for minting coins; their damage; many coin systems; leakage of gold and silver to the East.

In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, each principality printed its own coins, therefore, as in the ancient world, money-changers-bankers came to the rescue. Credit was developed on the basis of the money-changer. In the absence of portable money and robbery on the roads, the practice of wire transfer of money arose. This function was taken over by money changers. The role of cash began to be played by a bill of exchange (a money changer's receipt), according to which his agent in a certain place gave the bearer the amount he had paid earlier. Change offices began to be called banks, and their owners - bankers. Banks accumulated significant amounts of money, which they lent out at very high interest rates or property. Parallel to the banking capital, the usurious capital developed successfully, lending to the prestigious expenditures of the feudal lords and military expenditures. The usurer was interested in ruining his borrower, whose property passed to the usurer.

Bank credit mainly fell into the production sphere, squeezed by the workshop production, and did not bring income, therefore, rich bank offices set up trading enterprises, mines, large merchants directed their capital to the credit and usurious sphere. This is how the trading-banking-usurious firms appeared, which played a huge role not only in the economic, but also in the political life of Europe.

The improvement of arable tools and the development of new lands, which made it possible to increase the collection of agricultural crops, the development of animal husbandry, as well as the growth of commodity production and commodity-money relations, was accompanied by a transition from rent in kind and quitrent to money. Thus, the subsistence economy begins to fluctuate, the foundations of a market economy are formed (fairs, lending, banks appeared, the world market begins to form), and the unification of the state begins.

The late Middle Ages (XV-XVII centuries) is a period of disintegration of feudal relations. The contradictions between the natural character of feudal production and growing market relations intensified. The peasants were unable to increase agricultural production. In the city, the shop organization did not allow expanding production. If during the heyday of the Middle Ages the guild organization played a progressive role, then over time, strict guild regulations aimed at preserving small-scale production became a serious brake on the development of scientific and technological progress, entrepreneurial activity, and the organization of large-scale industries. The use of technical innovations (self-spinning wheels, felt mills, etc.) was prohibited, it was impossible to introduce more rational methods of organizing production (operational division of labor), to enlarge it, etc. Inventors were severely persecuted, up to and including death sentences. Along with this, the conditions for joining the shop became more complicated: the monetary contribution increased, the period of apprenticeship was lengthened, and the requirements for professional skills increased enormously.

Feudal hierarchy.

Feudal hierarchy. Relations between the feudal lords in the states of Western Europe were built on the principle of the so-called feudal hierarchy ("ladder"). At its top was the king, who was considered the supreme lord of all feudal lords, the head of the feudal hierarchy. Below it were the largest secular and spiritual feudal lords who held their lands - often large areas - directly from the king. They were titled nobles: dukes, as well as the highest representatives of the clergy, earls, archbishops, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries. Formally, they obeyed the king and his vassals, but in fact they were almost independent: they had the right to wage wars, mint coins, and sometimes exercise supreme jurisdiction in their domains. Their vassals, usually also all large landowners, who often bore the title of barons, were of a lower rank, but they also exercised a certain political power in their possessions.

Below the barons were smaller feudal lords - knights, the lower representatives of the ruling class, who did not always have vassals. In the IX - early XI century. the term "knight" (miles) simply meant a warrior who carried a vassal, usually equestrian, military service to his liege (German - Ritter, from whom the Russian "knight" comes). Later, in the XI-XII centuries, as the feudal system was strengthened and the class of feudal lords was consolidated, it acquires a broader meaning, on the one hand, it becomes a synonym for nobility, "nobility" in relation to commoners, on the other, belonging to the military class in difference from spiritual feudal lords. The knights usually had only peasant-holders who were not part of the feudal hierarchy under the command of the knights. Each feudal lord was a lord in relation to a lower feudal lord, if he kept land from him, and a vassal of a higher feudal lord, the holder of which he himself was.

The feudal lords who stood at the lower rungs of the feudal ladder, as a rule, did not obey the feudal lords, whose vassals were their immediate lords. In all countries of Western Europe (except England), relations within the feudal hierarchy were governed by the rule "my vassal's vassal is not my vassal."

Among the church feudal lords there also existed their own hierarchy according to the rank of their posts (from the Pope to the parish priests). Many of them at the same time could have been vassals of secular feudal lords in their land holdings, on the contrary.

The basis and maintenance of vassal relations was the feudal land ownership - the feud, or in German flax, which the vassal kept from his lord. As a specific military holding, the feud was considered a privileged, "noble" possession. The owner of the feud was considered not only its direct holder - the vassal, but also the lord, from whom the vassal held the land, and a number of other senior lords. The hierarchy within the class of feudal lords was thus determined by the conditional and hierarchical structure of feudal landed property. But it was formalized in the form of a personal contractual relationship of patronage and loyalty between the lord and the vassal.

The transfer of the feud to the vassal - putting into possession - was called investiture. The act of investiture was accompanied by a solemn ceremony of entering into a vassal relationship - bringing homme (from the French word 1 "homme - a person), during which a feudal lord, entering into a vassal dependence on another, recognized himself as him" man. ”At the same time, he swore an oath of loyalty to the lord, which the French called“ foie ”(in French - loyalty).

In addition to the main obligation to carry out military service in favor of the lord and upon conscription (usually 40 days during a year), the vassal should never do anything to his detriment and, at the request of the lord, defend his possessions with his own forces, participate in his judicial curia and, in certain cases, determined by feudal custom, to provide him with financial assistance: for the acceptance of a knighthood by his eldest son, for the marriage of his daughters, for redemption from captivity. The senior, in turn, was obliged to protect the vassal in the event of an attack by enemies and provide him with assistance in other difficult cases - to be the guardian of his young heirs, the protector of his widow and daughters.

Due to the confusion of vassal relations and frequent non-observance of vassal obligations, conflicts on this basis were in the 9th-11th centuries. common occurrence. War was considered a legal way to resolve disputes between feudal lords. However, from the first half of the XI century. The church, although not always successfully, tried to weaken military conflicts by promoting the idea of ​​"God's peace" as an alternative to war. The peasants most of all suffered from the internecine wars, whose fields were trampled, the villages were burned and devastated at each next clash of their lord with his many enemies.

The hierarchical organization, despite frequent conflicts among the feudal lords, bound and united all of them into a privileged stratum.

Chapter 2. Features of feudal land tenure

.1 Features of feudal land tenure

One of the most important prerequisites for the development of feudal relations was the dualism of the Frankish community. Community dualism is a combination of communal land tenure with private peasant farming. Already from the V-VII centuries. it became land, territorial, neighborly, and the land more and more often turned into allod. Allod is a freely alienable individual-family land property, i.e. private ownership of an allotment of communal land. The peasants appropriated the allotments received from the community into private property as soon as the opportunity arose for this. Clearing and reclaiming of forest areas was used most often.

The emergence of the allod, deepening the property and social differentiation of the Franks, became a prerequisite for the formation of large feudal property. The process of concentration of land ownership, social stratification was facilitated by the intervention of state power. The state land fund, which consisted of the surviving estates of the Roman slave owners, state lands, and rebel lands confiscated during numerous civil wars, was handed out by the royal power to confidants, vigilantes, and a church in the form of an allod. The state land fund was rapidly declining, so the principles of land salaries had to be changed.

In the VIII century. in the Kingdom of the Franks, important reforms were carried out. Under Karl Martell (715-741), as a result of the military reform, the peasants were removed from military service. The basis of the army was the knightly cavalry. The equestrian knight's armament was expensive. The costs of maintaining the troops and equipment of the knights fell on the shoulders of the peasants. The military reform required changes in land grants. A beneficiary system was introduced. Benefit is a form of land ownership of a feudal lord, due to certain obligations (payments and military service) and a period (usually life). A vassal relationship arose: the vassal depended on the seigneur who bestowed the benefits, took the last oath of allegiance and performance of the service. The lord, retaining the right of the supreme owner to the granted land, could take it away if the vassal violated the contract.

Military service became the monopoly of the feudal lords. When the beneficiaries were distributed, the formerly free people who inhabited these lands often became subjects of the vassals: they turned from subjects of the king into peasants dependent on private individuals.

In the IX century. Beneficiaries turned into fiefs, or feuds, which were a conditional grant to a vassal, which was inherited. Military service remained the main condition for the ownership of the feud, although the latter was passed on to hereditary use. The Lena system is a developed form of feudal land tenure, on its basis a vassalage, a feudal hierarchy of the nobility was formed.

All the conditions that contributed to the formation of large landownership (feudal strife and wars against other tribes) led to the loss of freedom by the communal peasants.

Ruined by the war or poor harvest, the peasant, finding no protection either from the community or from the royal power, was forced to seek the protection of local strong and wealthy people. Receiving a land plot from them, he lost his freedom and turned into a dependent or serf. In turn, a large landowner provided his own economy with the working hands of people dependent on him, who paid for the land and assistance with their work (corvee) and products (quitrent).

With a low level of development of the productive forces of that time, a lot of land and labor were required to provide a sufficient amount of agricultural products. The ruling class was interested not in seizing land from the peasants, but in a sufficient number of workers. The seizure of land by the feudal lord consisted in the fact that the allodist lost his ownership of this land and turned into a holder on the basis of feudal law, i.e. became obliged to pay rent for it and to bear the obligations established either by custom or by agreement. This change in the position of the allodist was the content of the concept of the supreme property of the feudal lord to certain lands.

The feudal lords acquired communal land and peasant allotments from the beginning of the 9th century. massive character. The feudal lords in every possible way drove the peasants to ruin, forcing them to either sell or transfer the land to a large landowner. The most common form of establishing the dependence of the poor on the large landowner was the practice of transferring him to the category of so-called precarians. Prakariy - literally "transferred at the request", conditional land holding, which a large land owner transferred either for temporary or for life holding to a landless or landless poor with the obligation of the latter to bear duties and dues in favor of the owner. There were three types of precarians: a) the holder received all the land from the owner; b) the peasant gave his own land to a large landowner and received it back, but not as his own, but as ceded to him by the landowner for the obligation to bear corvee and dues, and at the same time receiving protection and the necessary assistance in case of need; c) by giving away the land, the holder received more land. The system of precaria assumed the dependence of individual peasants on the feudal lords, and the form and degree of dependence were established each time individually. A peasant settlement could immediately become dependent if the village was part of the beneficiary. The king, favoring the beneficiaries and demanding military service for him, transferred the income of the inhabitants of the territory to the beneficiary, which, with subsistence farming, was the only way of remuneration for service. Residents became people dependent on the beneficiary, if they had not previously become dependent. With the transformation of the benefit into a feud, the dependence of the inhabitants of the benefit became stronger and became permanent. Subsistence farming is a simple reproduction of all economic conditions; handicraft labor is combined and subordinated to agricultural labor; feudal rent is collected in kind; economic ties with territories outside the fiefdom were rarely carried out. The result of the growth of large landownership was the gradual concentration in the hands of large landowners of the judicial, administrative, fiscal functions and functions of the military leadership. These functions receive their legal form in the form of so-called immunity. Immunity is a privilege that protects lords and their lands from interference by the king and his representatives in the affairs of the fief. Immunity was confirmed by a certificate of immunity. The landowner's immunity rights included: judicial power over the population under control; performing the functions of the sovereign in the immunity territory; the right to collect all fiscal amounts (taxes, fines, etc.) ). The basis of the economic organization of the Frankish society in the VIII-IX centuries. became a feudal fiefdom - señoria, its sizes were different. The land of the patrimony consisted of two parts: the land that was in the economy of the feudal lord (domain), and peasant allotments (holdings). The land of the domain was, as a rule, no more than 1/3 of all peasant holdings. The domain included mainly not arable land, but forests, wastelands, swamps, etc. With a low level of productive forces, the necessary labor, or labor spent on reproducing the labor force of the direct producer and his family and other production conditions, absorbed most of the labor time peasant and surplus labor could not be large, and therefore the scope of its application, i.e. lordly smell, could not be great.

The feudal lord could not receive income from his land otherwise than by transferring this land in small allotments to the hands of the peasants. The receipt of feudal rent depended on the well-being of the peasant economy and the peasant community. The consequence of this was the relative economic independence of both the individual peasant economy and the peasant community as a whole from the economy of the feudal estates. Moreover, the fiefdom presupposed the existence of a brand community as an organization (corporation) of producers. Community production formed the basis of production in the fiefdom. Lying in a lane with peasant allotments, domain lands in the two-field and three-field were included in the corresponding wedges of the village-communes and were subject to forced crop rotation on a par with the peasants. The feudal lord did not interfere in the economic decisions of the community. The production process was carried out with the help of individual instruments of labor; production itself remained small, regardless of the size of the fiefdom. Progress in agriculture was expressed in an increase in the cultivated area through land reclamation, clearing of forests, which was cultivated with invariable tools of labor. In the conditions of the domination of small, ineffective production, obtaining a surplus product from an economically independent owner is possible only with the help of non-economic coercion, and personal dependence is in this case a means of non-economic coercion.

In the Middle Ages, three types of subordination of the peasant to the lord were distinguished - personal, land and judicial. A serf in Western Europe was a person who depended on the same lord in three respects at once. Personal dependence is rooted in ancient slavery. The slave, planted on the ground, remained a sevres. He did not have the right to inherit the allotment without paying a special contribution to the lord, he paid the "head tax", all other duties were not fixed and were collected at the will of the lord.

Land dependence stemmed from the fact that the peasant allotment belonged to the seigneur. The land of the allotment was part of the estate, due to which the peasant had to bear various duties in proportion to the size of the allotment and in accordance with the customs, which were fixed by tradition and were accurately listed in the cadastres of the estate.

The peasant's judicial dependence stemmed from the lord's immunity rights. This dependence was expressed in the fact that the population had to be tried in the court of the immunist, and all court fines, as well as those duties that used to go to the king, were now paid in favor of the lord.

As a result of the development of vassalage, the structure of the ruling class of feudal society was a hierarchical ladder. Each large landowner was considered a vassal of the king, and each feudal lord could have vassals by ceding to one person or another part of his land with its population as a feud. A large feudal lord, transferring a benefit or a feud to a vassal, transferred to him the feudal rent (or part of it) with the population of the feud, which thus became dependent on the new seigneur, without losing dependence on the superior.

The establishment of vassalage, on the one hand, acquired the character of the distribution of feudal rent between various layers of feudal lords, and on the other, it made direct producers dependent on many lords, and dependence on each of them was expressed in the obligation to pay a certain type of duties and payments. Since the economic conditions did not change for a long time, the feudal holder and his descendants bore the same duties in favor of the lord, sometimes for centuries. The very size and nature of the duties became customary. These obligations were considered by both peasants and lords as legitimate, and deviation from them as a violation of custom. Such immutability gave rise to another phenomenon characteristic of feudalism: the transformation of certain relations between people, in this case, the relationship between the lord and his holder, into the legal quality of the holding itself. For the allotment given to the serf, all the duties inherent in the Servian holding were assigned. They were preserved when the land passed, for example, personally to a free person. Conversely, a serf could have free tenure. These relations became even more complicated with the development of commodity-money relations, when land and individual duties of feudal-dependent people became the object of sale and purchase.

.2 Forms of feudal land tenure

The peasants in a feudal society, receiving land from the feudal lords, never became its full owners. Forms of land holdings in Western Europe are numerous and varied. In rare cases, feudal lords gave the peasants land, as it were, for hereditary holding, i.e. the land could pass from father to son. But even the hereditary form of holding did not make the land the property of the peasant. She remained the property of the feudal lord.

On the land received from the feudal lord, the peasant led his own economy. In addition to land, the peasants had tools, horses, livestock. Economically they were independent from the feudal lords. The essence of the relations of production of feudalism consisted in the fact that all the land was divided among the landowners, and they endowed the peasants with land. The allotment of land by feudal lords to peasants under feudalism was a peculiar form of their exploitation. The land was a specific type of in-kind wages, it provided the peasant with surplus products that went to the landowner.

Economically, the peasant was independent of the feudal lord. The relations that had developed between the feudal landowners and the peasant-producers demanded the introduction of a new mechanism, which was called non-economic coercion. This mechanism ensured the work of the peasant for the feudal lord. If the landowner did not have direct power over the personality of the peasant, he would never have been able to force the peasant to work for himself. Therefore, in feudal law, norms of non-economic coercion were developed. They were different in different countries. One of these forms was serfdom. At a later time, it was a form of class incompetence and class inferiority of the peasant. The first form of non-economic coercion was the immunity of the feudal lord, which he received from his lord along with the land. Immunity rights ensured full judicial power of the feudal lord over the peasant and over the peasant community. The first forms of non-economic coercion were reduced only to the judicial dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord, but this form was one of the main, it kept the peasant from the slightest attempt at any insubordination. Immunity rights were a serious form of non-economic coercion. They persisted for a very long time and persisted when other forms of non-economic coercion appeared.

Considering the features of the forms of feudal land tenure, I identified the following aspects. This is the conditional nature of feudal land ownership and the associated division of ownership of land between several feudal lords according to the famous scheme "my vassal's vassal is not my vassal." fulfillment of some other obligations (usually military) in favor of the superior lord. The feud left the family with the death of its recipient. By special permission of the feudal lord, he remained in the family on the condition that the eldest son continued his father's military service for the feudal lord. If there were sons in the family who continued their father's service, then the feud (flax) could be considered hereditary.

The fiefdom was a large land seigneurial donation. The patrimony was hereditary, i.e. passed down from generation to generation and was never alienated, never left the family. As a rule, large feudal lords who served the king or major feudal lord received the fiefdom. In its first periods, feudalism had a military-land coloration. Over time, the military color will disappear, the land color will persist for a long time, until the first revolutions of the 16th-18th centuries.

This distribution of land ownership (separation of the feud and the fief) in a feudal society formed its hierarchical structure. This structure determined vassal-feudal ties, which were derived from the specifics of the distribution of landed property within the ruling class itself. The feudal hierarchy, as it were, cemented feudal society.

The exploitation of the peasantry in all its full form was carried out not in the fiefs (fiefs), but in the highest form of feudal land tenure - the patrimony. In Western Europe, the names of this form of feudal tenure were different: patrimony, seigneur, manor (in England). The various forms of exploitation of the peasantry were most fully realized in the estates, and it was in the estates that the picture of production and personal relations between feudal landowners and peasants could be fully revealed. Unlike the feud and the fiefdom, the patrimony was efficiently organized to collect feudal rent. Feudal land rent is a part of surplus labor, a product of dependent peasants, which was appropriated by a landowner feudal lord. Feudal rent was the economic mechanism for realizing the feudal lord's ownership of land. The means of realization was also non-economic coercion, which manifested itself in the personal relations of the feudal lord and the peasant.

In feudal society, rent appeared in three forms:

· corvee, or labor rent;

· grocery rent, or natural rent;

· cash rent, or cash rent.

At different stages of the 12 centuries of feudalism, one or another type of rent prevailed. At the beginning of feudalism, labor rent was the most widespread; almost simultaneously with it, natural quitrent and later money rent appeared.

In the early Middle Ages, when the feudal lords in their estates conducted a domain economy, the corvee system of economy and the associated natural quitrent, or grocery rent, prevailed. In classical and late feudalism in most countries of Western and Central Europe, along with labor and food rent, a third type of rent begins to prevail, monetary rent, or money rent. The emergence of money was caused by the growth of cities as centers of crafts and trade and the formation of commodity-money relations. The realization of rent by products and, especially, money rent, undermined the corvee economy. The feudal money rent is being replaced by the capitalist form of rent. In some countries of Western Europe, by the end of feudalism, corvée economy was reviving, and in other countries this economic system was curtailed, because the feudal landowner himself ceased to be engaged in his own economy, and two types of rent remained on these farms; natural rent and feudal monetary rent.

Such a situation, when the landowner refused to run his own economy and lived on rent, is especially typical for France and for countries with strong royal power and an extensive court staff. For the sake of a brilliant career at the royal court, feudal lords abandoned their estates and rushed from deep backwaters to Paris, thereby changing their social status.

Throughout the 12-century history of feudalism, the mechanisms of non-economic coercion weakened, serfdom disappeared, and the amount of rent returned to normal.

Feudal states were formed as antagonistic states, with two main classes - feudal lords and peasants. As in any antagonistic society, these classes from the very beginning of their formation were in acute and often hostile relations. In the period of early feudalism, the peasants opposed the feudal lords. Later, in the second period of feudalism, when the cities grew and became stronger, the cities of Western Europe also entered the position of opposition to the feudal lords. The struggle of the cities began with the struggle of the guild craftsmen against the urban patriciate, then the urban plebeianism against the guild oligarchy joined this struggle. In the late Middle Ages, urban uprisings became an organic part of the early bourgeois revolutions. With the constant absence of the feudal lord, the peasant became more and more independent, felt like a master, worked more, and his economy flourished.

In England, a major system of feudal relations arose. Manor - the feudal possession of the lord. The seigneur's own farm, including the estate, arable land, hunting grounds - this is the domain, the complete property of the seigneur. The second part is the farms of the peasants; their allotments are divided into strips located along the fields of the manor. This land of peasant households and it is also the property of the manor. In addition, in common use there are meadows, pastures, heathlands, which are the property of the community, but remain under the control of the "seigneur."

Under the influence of the Norman conquest in England, a system was formed, in the course of which the role of private ownership of land increased. The owner was not a “household” but an individual (man or woman). Over time, several categories of peasants formed here, including the yeomen and gentry, which would become the basis of the new nobility in the 15th century, associated with the market.

The system of private economy in England was closely connected with the system of political administration, which allowed it to outstrip other European countries in economic development. With the evolution of the productive forces, the growth of commodity production becomes the main direction of the development of feudalism in the agriculture of Western Europe. Gradually, the feudal economy began to lose its isolation and its natural character. The process of elimination of natural forms of feudal rent and the transfer of rent into money (commutation) is under way.

Conclusion

The transition to feudalism can be considered evolution and progress in world history. Under feudalism, small-scale peasant production took shape, small-scale farming - small, crushed peasant farms, the land to which, as a rule, was given by the feudal lord in a striped state, and which, at the level of productive forces and feudal-production relations reached by that time, was the only profitable form of agriculture. The peasant, unlike the slave, was interested in his work. Large landed property of the feudal lords was created during the period of early feudalism through the king's grants to his vassals, as well as through direct seizures of the land of the peasants. The transition to feudalism is associated with the emergence of small, medium and large landowners, whose monopoly property is land. Land as an object of ownership was the main condition for the existence of feudalism. The transition to feudalism and the formation of a new type of property - land, is associated with the subordination of peasants to landowners.

The feudal type of state was objectively necessary for the further progressive development of mankind. He offered new perspectives for life: in contrast to the slave-owning society, workers were personally more independent, he had incentives to increase labor productivity. As a result, the preconditions for the development of science and technology appeared.

The transition to new land relations also led to the development of agriculture, since the peasant was interested in his work, as well as in the development of handicrafts. These factors led to the development of trade. Trade and craft led to the emergence of cities and the establishment of connections between them. The appearance of coins for each principality. Subsequently, even the crisis that appeared during the decline of feudalism made it possible to replace a new formation, capitalism. Namely, the capital acquired by feudal lords, large landowners and some artisans made it possible in the future to use it for investments and the creation of new manufactures and the establishment of market relations.

history feudalism state land tenure

List of used literature

1.History of state and law of foreign countries: textbook for law schools / ed. Zhidkova O.A., Krasheninnikova N.A. - 2nd ed., Stereotyped. - M.: Norma, 1999 - 610 p.

2.Kareva V.V .. History of the Middle Ages. M .: PSTBI. 1999

New Dictionary of Foreign Words - by Edwart, 2009.

Gurevich A.Ya. The beginning of feudalism in Europe // Gurevich A.Ya. Selected works in 2 volumes. Vol. 1. M .; SPb., 1999.S. 228-240s

Engels F. The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State

Korsunsky A.R . Formation of an early feudal state in Western Europe. M., 1963.

Dubrovsky I. V . How do I understand feudalism? // Construction of the social. Europe in the V-XVI centuries. M., 2001.S. 170-182.

History of the Middle Ages. Edited by N.F. Kolesnitsky. 2nd ed. rev. and additional - M .: Education, 1986 .-- 575 s

9.Block M ... Feudal society. - M .: Publishing house named after Sabashnikovs, 2003. - 504 p. - 4000 copies.

General theory of law and state: textbook for universities / VS Afanasyev, [and others], ed. Lazarev V.V .. - Ed. 3rd, rev. and add. - M. Jurist, 2002 .-- 517 p.

Theory of state and law: a textbook for universities in the specialty "Jurisprudence" / S. S. Alekseev, [and others] 2004. - 484 p.

Chernilovsky Z.M. History of the feudal state and law. M., 1980.420 s

Reader on the history of the state and law of foreign countries in 2 volumes. V.2. Modern state and law / otv. ed. Krasheninnikova N.A. - M.: NORMA, 2003 .-- 669 p.

Bagratyan G.A. with arm. / G. A. Bagratyan. - M .: Izograf 2000 .-- 319 p.

Theory of state and law: textbook / Berezhnov AG, [and others], ed. Marchenko M.N .. - 3rd ed., Expanded. and add. - M.: Zertsalo, 2001 .-- 611 p.

Novoselsky A.A. Research on the history of the era of feudalism / A. A. Novoselsky. - M: Nauka, 1994.-223 s

Kotelnikova L.A. Feudalism and the city in Italy in the VIII-XV centuries M .: Nauka, 1987

Anderson P ... Transitions from Antiquity to Feudalism = PassagesfromAntiquitytoFeodalism / Per. from English Artem Smirnov. - M .: Territory of the future, 2007 .-- 288 p.

Nesmelova M.L., History of the Middle Ages. Methodical manual, M. Vlados-Press, 2001.

Immortal Yu. L. Feudal revolution of the X-XI centuries? // Questions of history. 1984. No. 1. S. 52-67. (http://www.orbis-medievalis.nm.ru/library/articles.html).

Medieval Philosophy http://diesel.elcat.kg/lofiversion/index.php?t13195650.html

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in the Middle Ages: land ownership granted to a vassal

Alfalfa scoop victim

The basis of many fabrics

Agriculture

Herbaceous plant, from the stems of which spinning fiber is obtained, and from the seeds - oil

Jean Marie (born 1939) French organic chemist, Nobel Prize (1987, with D.J. Crum and C. Pedersen)

Administrative division in Sweden

In medieval Germany, initially the same as the benefice, then the same as the feud

Dolgunets

Vassal's land allotment

Polytrichum

French organic chemist, Nobel laureate (1987)

Land allotment received by a vassal from his overlord

The tale of H. Andersen

Medicinal plant

Plant on the state symbols of Belarus

The origin of the name of this plant is related to the Latin words "line", "thread", and now Pskov and Smolensk regions are famous for them

... "I grow out of the earth - I dress the whole world" (riddle)

... "They drowned, dried, pounded, tore, twisted, weaved, put on the table" (riddle)

... "Northern silk"

A plant that makes good bedding

Two exhibitions are traditionally held in Vologda: "Russian Forest" and "Russian ..."

Industrial culture (get fiber, oil)

Medicinal herb

Oil plant, spinning crop

Herb used in the textile industry

Natural fiber

Spinning culture

Curly and fiber

Put on a vassal (old)

Plant for shirt

Politrichum or cuckoo ...

Loaf, raw or fiber

Plant, symbol of Belarus

Unit of territory in Sweden

Textile culture

Russian competitor to Uzbek cotton

Swedish District

Textile plant

Blue grass from song

Swedish area

Technical culture

Curly, fiber (meadow grass)

Grass "bow-loving"

Province in Sweden

A plant worth bashing

Vassal's land

Textile grass

Spinning plant

Vassal land

Russian alternative to cotton

Blue in Pauls song

Herbaceous plant of the flax family

Spinning fiber

Fabric made from such fiber

I grow out of the earth - I dress the whole world (riddle)

Land tenure in the Middle Ages, feud

French organic chemist (Nobel Prize 1987)

... "I grow out of the earth - I dress the whole world" (riddle)

... "Northern silk"

M. east. tendon, ligaments of the cervical vertebrae; nape, collar, cervical ridge. Hint, nagging someone flax, hitting someone on the flax, hitting someone in the neck. The weasel bites flax, the cervical vertebrae and the back vein to the hare. See also Lena

M. is a well-known fibrous plant, from which threads are made and fabrics are woven, Linium usitatissimus. Flax slate, first fiber analysis; mochen, second. Flax is deaf, rostun, fiber, gives long, but tough fibers. Linen poultry, the fiber is short, soft and thin. Flax is a fluid, in which the yellow heads burst, dropping the seed. Coarse flax hairbrushes: rake, second hairbrushes, brush: pachei; there remains pure flax, tow. Siberian flax, wild, rhenne. Flax blooms for two weeks, ripens for four weeks, flies to the seventh seed. Flax does not get along with rage, it is not this spring flax. Flax will succeed, so silk; will fail, so click! The less the share, the fiber will be more (the fiber will be the share). On babin's rye, on grandfather's wheat, on girl's flax, water with a bucket! at the first rain. you and me, and flax is not shared, all together. flax is not divisible, and it is hardly dragged. Linen (in winter) does not dry for a long time, flax will be bad. Len this in the last quarter. Mitrofaniya sowing flax and buckwheat, June. Deer long flax. On Olena Seil, May. Eggs, flax, buckwheat, barley and late wheat from Venison's Day, lower. simb. Olena's mothers, early flax and late sheep; in the south, the last sowing of flax. Seed flax at seven Olen. Lena Olene, cucumbers to Konstantin. Did they beat me, beat me, put me in all ranks, put me on the throne with the king? linen. Did the little little ones (or babies) go into the damp earth, found a blue hat? linen. Mountain or stone flax, asbestos, ammonia, non-combustible, fire-resistant. Lenok, lenochek will belittle. flax derogatory Lenok yuzhn. plant. Linaria vulgaris, wild flax, honeywort, post-skrypnyak, vyzhlik, silkworm, chickberry, nutrenik, cat eggs, traveler, raft, vydolnik. Kukushkin flax, plant. Adiantum, dry plant; also plant. Polytrychum. Shirky linen, magenta yarn, plant. Suscuta, mulberry, mulberry, felt grass, dodder, dodder. Linum catharticum. Lennik m. Toadflax Linaria vulgaris, plant wild flax. Lenolist m. Transl. plant. Тhesium linophilium. Linen, linen arch. flaxseed psk. hard. llyanoy or allyanoy, made of flax. Linen. Linseed oil distilled from flaxseed. Flaxseed, rich in flax, fruitful for flax. Flaxseed, flax-like, like flax. Flax and flax linen, linen clothing. Flax, flax cf. the field that was under the flax; undercut under flax; the place where flax is laid, rotted, dried. Flaxseed m. Plant. mushroom, rape. Flaxen The Paraskeva-flaxies, on the day of October, crumple the flax and bring the first pieces for the butt to the church. Flax mills crusher for flax. Flax spinning establishment, factory for machine spinning of flax; flax-spinning, related to this matter. Lazy orenb. to collect flax from the world, also in other supplies, out of poverty; dialect. special about priest's widows

County in Swedish

The origin of the name of this plant is related to the Latin words "line", "thread", and now Pskov and Smolensk regions are famous for them.

... "drowned, dried, pounded, tore, twisted, weaved, put on the table" (riddle)

Two exhibitions are traditionally held in Vologda: "Russian Forest" and "Russian ..."

Grass "bow-loving"

Curly or fiber

I. LEN -a; m. [German. Lehn] East. 1. In Western Europe during the era of feudalism: hereditary land ownership, granted to a vassal, subject to his military service and other duties. Explanatory dictionary Kuznetsov

In the conditions of agricultural growth in the XIV-XV centuries, there was a process of increasing the value of land as the main means of production, which indicates the further development of feudal society. The price of land rose, and the struggle between landowners intensified. It was at this time that court cases began to appear between feudal lords, between feudal lords and peasants on land tenure issues.

At this time, there were several categories of landowners.

At the disposal of the state were communal, so-called black lands. We have already noted that scientists do not have a unanimity of views on the nature of the black lands. Some of them define these lands as the property of the peasants, denying the existence of feudal state ownership of these lands; others speak of dismembered property between the community and the state, while still others characterize the black lands as their own for the entire class of feudal lords in the person of the sovereign, emphasizing the rent character of the state tax.

Despite the fact that the peasants considered this land provided to them for eternal times, nevertheless, the princes transferred the given lands at their discretion: they could give it to the boyars and clergy, distributed it in conditional holding.

Black Hundred peasants paid tribute to the princely treasury and performed a number of other duties. The tribute itself consisted of a series of payments. At the time being studied, the payment of the Horde "exit", other irregular payments, extraordinary extortions and duties were a heavy burden on the peasants' shoulders.

In the XIV-XV centuries. black peasants continued to make up a large, or at least a significant portion of the rural population. But in some principalities there was a process of decreasing the proportion of this class group. We must not forget that as the Russian lands were unified around the Moscow principality, the black lands of the subordinate states, as a rule, went to the fund of the state lands of the united monarchy.

Significant land wealth was in the personal property of the princes - the so-called domain lands. For example, Ivan Kalita was the owner of more than 50 villages, after 100 years Vasily Temny owned 125 villages. In the XIV-XV centuries, as well as in the period of the XII - the beginning of the XIII centuries, this form of feudal property developed most intensively. The domain possessions of the sovereign princes were characterized by a multi-component nature, fragmentation in different regions. Horse breeding and crafts occupied a noticeable share in the economy.

Researchers note that labor services were widespread - duties and extortions in kind not only from the dependent peasantry of these domain holdings, but also from neighboring black and even private peasants.

The entire economy of the domain was subdivided into "paths" - branches of economic activity, which were in charge "Good boyars". We have no data on the division in the budgets of princes of income from their own property and from state taxes.

Significant land wealth was in the hands of boyars. According to the custom of this time, they could serve one prince and at the same time own lands located in another principality, that is, on the territory politically subordinate to another ruler. The princes undertook to provide foreign boyars with the protection of personality and rights to the same extent as their own. True, this custom was gradually broken, and under Dmitry Donskoy in Moscow it was canceled. In addition, the princes often prohibited the boyars of other principalities from acquiring villages in their territories. All this created a certain instability of boyar land tenure. However, on the other hand, this form of certain land ownership has grown steadily.

During the Mongol-Tatar invasion, a powerful blow was dealt to the boyar land tenure and the entire boyars. But by the end of the XIV century the boyars had recovered from their hardships.

Clergy land tenure grew steadily , which included the possessions of the metropolitan, bishops and monasteries. This form did not suffer such a heavy damage as the boyar form, since according to the laws of Genghis Khan, all rights, privileges and property were retained for the clergy. An essential role was played by the fact that these holdings were not split between the heirs, there was a possibility of their constant strengthening and expansion. Church land tenure was the most organized and economically strong. The churchmen aspired to be, and ultimately became, landowners of an all-Russian scale. Objectively, many of them were vitally interested in the creation of a unified state.

The possessions of the secular and spiritual nobility increased at the expense of the black lands. The main ways of expanding private holdings were: donation and sale from the prince, mortgages in monasteries, purchase, violent seizure with the subsequent registration of the transfer.

The dominant form of land ownership was at this time fiefdom. The ownership data could be inherited and alienated. However, it should be noted that the freedom of alienation was limited: by the primary right of relatives to purchase the land for sale; the right to redeem the land later by relatives, if the sale was made without their knowledge.

Along with the patrimonial land, the importance of conventional land tenure grew. By the middle of the 15th century, local system. Princes and other feudal lords transferred their lands to their palace and military servicemen, subject to the fulfillment of duties.

In characterizing this type of land tenure, two circumstances should be noted. Firstly, in conditions of feudal fragmentation of the land, many princes and feudal lords gave conditional hold, and therefore this layer of owners supported their overlord. Secondly, sometimes they were given wastelands with the requirement to populate them with peasants. Consequently, the conditional land tenure itself contributed to the restoration and development of the economy.

At the same time, there are a number of problems in the study of the development of feudal land tenure. So, due to the scarcity of sources, it is difficult to trace the process of folding estates, their functioning. Monasteries are an exception here. And this creates difficulties in determining the degree of development of feudal relations.

Until now, the problem of the comprehensive influence of the establishment of vassal relations with the Golden Horde on the socio-economic development of Russia has not been properly investigated. It is difficult to study the issue of the movement of possessions within the ruling class.