Gaul before the arrival of Caesar The Romans conquered the southern part of Transalpine Gaul as early as 120 BC. NS. It received the name of the Narbonne province (modern Provence) and, unlike Cisalpine Gaul, by that time was already quite romanized and therefore called

1. Gaul to Gauls. Stone Age Celts were far from the first people on the territory of Gaul, they seemed to be late for the beginning of its settlement, and they got to "reap the fruits" of the development of a primitive society that had existed there for more than one millennium. First of all, without going into

Gaul in this case represents the area that the ancient Romans called Transalpine Gaul (Gaul on the other side of the Alps). This area included vast lands stretching from the Iberian Ridge and Mediterranean coast in the south to the English Channel in the north, and from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Rhine and the western spurs of the Alps in the east. There was also Cisalpine Gaul (Gaul on this side of the Alps), which was located in northern Italy, however, it is not directly related to the history of France. Transalpine Gaul appeared on the map as a full-fledged administrative entity in the middle of the 1st century BC. NS. as a result of the military campaigns of Julius Caesar (c. 100-44 BC), and disappeared only in the 5th century AD. Caesar's heir - Emperor Augustus (reigned from 27 BC to 14 AD) divided the country into four administrative regions: Narbonne Gaul, Lugdun Gaul, Aquitaine and Belgica. Realizing the impossibility of large-scale expansion beyond the Rhine, the rulers of the Flavian dynasty (69-96) annexed the area between the middle Rhine and the upper Danube (Black Forest region) in order to secure communication lines between the Roman military garrisons located at that time on the banks of both rivers. The eastern coast of this province during the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161) was a border rampart, consisting of protective palisades and ditches. Directly adjacent to the region was Upper Germany, one of two new provinces (the other was Lower Germany), created by the last ruler of the Flavian dynasty, Domitian (ruled in 81-96). ) divided Gaul into 13 new provinces.

Population

The main population of Gaul was made up of numerous Celtic tribes, however, in the south and southeast of the province lived Ligurs and Iberians (who settled here even before the appearance of the Celts), and the northeastern region was occupied by newly arrived Germans. Neighboring Celtic tribes settled along the Danube and in the regions of northern Italy were not included in Gaul. The Greek colony Massilia (modern Marseille) had a significant influence in the south of the province. It was founded back in 600 BC. and subsequently many trading settlements arose around it. Thus, Gaul, which laid the foundation for the statehood of medieval France, was not a natural political formation, but a structure artificially created by the Romans, whose goal was to create an effective system of defensive communications behind the Alpine ridge.

Roman conquest

In the II century BC. Rome invaded Gaul, taking part on the side of Massilia in her war with the surrounding Celtic tribes. The main goal of the Romans was to protect the road from Italy to the newly acquired lands in Spain. The result of the intervention was the creation in 121 BC. administrative region Province (later Provence), which included the territory from the Mediterranean coast to Lake Geneva. The capital of the Province was the city of Narbo (present-day Narbonne). From 58 to 50 BC. Julius Caesar managed to subdue the rest of Gaul. In pursuit of his own political goals, Caesar, in his fight against the Gauls, relied on the deep fear of the Romans before the raids of the Celtic and Germanic barbarians. In the II century BC. Germanic tribes of Cimbri and Teutons made a brutal raid on the territory of the Province, which horrified the inhabitants of Italy. Using the contradictions between the various tribes of the Gauls, the Romans, in the end, managed to break them one by one. Nevertheless, this victory was not given to Rome so easily. It is worth remembering at least the great uprising of the leader of the Arvern tribe - Verzingentorig, which occurred in 52 BC. The Romans managed to suppress this rebellion only as a result of a bloody siege of the fortress of Alesia (the modern city of Aliz-Saint-Ren).

Gaul under the rule of the early Roman Empire (c. 50 BC - c. 250 AD)

The first centuries of Roman rule were marked by the rapid assimilation of Gaul by the Greco-Roman world. The reason for this was, on the one hand, the skillful actions of the Roman administration, on the other hand, the extremely high susceptibility of the Gallo-Celtic population to foreign cultural influences. Celtic culture arose in the area of ​​the upper Danube at the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC. The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age was marked by the rapid movement of the Celtic tribes in the western and southern directions. The first traces of the Iron Age in Gaul date back to around 700 BC. (the so-called Hallstadt culture); archaeological finds from a later period of the same era (La Tenskaya culture) date back to 500 BC. At first, the Romans, who had not yet forgotten about the attack on their capital in 390 BC. the Gallic leader Brenna, the Celts were considered wild barbarians and treated them only with contempt and fear. Until the very end of the 1st century BC. the inhabitants of Rome contemptuously called the Celtic lands outside the Province, "Long-haired Gaul" and ridiculed the Gauls' excessive taste for wine. Such a frivolous attitude did not have the best effect on the governance of the Province itself.

Despite the disdainful attitude of the Romans, Gaul in its development actually did not lag far behind its metropolis. For example, in the southern part of the region, the Ligurian communities for a long time, thanks to close ties with Massilia, have experienced a noticeable influence of the highly developed Greek culture. Directly in the area inhabited by the Celtic population, Julius Caesar organized large communities, consisting of smaller tribes, on the basis of which urban centers arose - oppidums, which, despite their significant difference from the classical city-states, received fairly broad administrative and commercial rights. The stable policy of the imperial system, which replaced the corrupt republic, had a positive impact on the state of affairs in Transalpine Gaul. Region The province, now called Narbonne Gaul, was dotted with settlements for retired Roman soldiers, the so-called "colonies"; Soon this province with a large number of city-states began to be compared in terms of living standards with Italy. In the other three parts of Gaul - Lugdun Gaul, Aquitaine and Belgica - there were relatively few full-fledged city-states; communal settlements continued to predominate here, and fierce competition existed between their rulers. This struggle, however, did not turn into a military confrontation; the status and influence of the community as a whole and of its individual member depended on the degree of loyalty and the level of "romanization".

Northern Gaul, meanwhile, was also substantially Romanized. Latin dominated education and administration; it was then that the Romance foundations of modern French were laid. From an archaeological point of view, the most striking example of the successful assimilation of the Celts by the Romans is the appearance of a Greco-Roman city in Gaul. Despite the fact that communal settlements were too large to exist like full-fledged city-states, they included cities that became administrative centers and developed by local magnates in accordance with classical postulates. A characteristic feature of the capital cities was a clear layout of streets and the construction of administrative and recreational facilities (forums, baths, amphitheaters). Despite the noticeable presence of local flavor, in general, the architectural appearance of the main cities of Gaul corresponded to the latest trends in Mediterranean art. Most of these settlements did not have defensive walls, which is evidence of the peaceful period under the rule of Rome, which lasted 150 years.

Roman architecture also had a noticeable influence on buildings erected in the Gaul countryside. The villas of the local Romanized nobility were not palaces in the full sense of the word, but rather a cross between a working farm and a manor. Representatives of the highest Gallic aristocracy of the pre-Roman period, who were the first to adopt the lifestyle of their conquerors, were at first the main builders of rural estates, however, starting from the 1st century BC, smaller landowners took over the palm.

Scientists are still arguing about how profitable the rule of Rome became for the huge (10 million) population of Gaul, who had never known slavery before. What is indisputable is that the landowners flourished in the new conditions. One of the main reasons for this prosperity was the presence of the Roman army, whose supply of goods brought huge profits. Trade in Gaul was also revived substantially by the improved and expanded Roman network of land and river trade routes. It is no coincidence that the main center of Gaul during the early Roman Empire was the city of Lugdunum (Lyon) - the most important transport hub and port on the river route that led to the capital of both German provinces, the Colony of Agrippina (Cologne).

Considering the above circumstances, it is not surprising that the opposition to the Roman conquerors from the Gauls was not very active; the unsuccessful revolt of Vercingentorig was another confirmation of this. In 21 and 69-70 years. local uprisings arose, which were relatively quickly and easily suppressed. These events significantly weakened the ambitions of the old Gallic aristocracy; few of its representatives subsequently applied for serious positions in the Roman administration. This inertia of the Gallic nobility was initially explained by prejudice on the part of the Romans, and later by the fact that the nobles were quite satisfied with the activities on the ground. This state of affairs was in the hands of Gaul, since the funds obtained here were mainly spent on the domestic market.

Gaul under the rule of the late Roman Empire (c. 250-c. 400)

The end of the era of the early Roman Empire was characterized by numerous attacks from external enemies and a constant change of supreme power. All the increasing pressure on the borders of the empire provoked a deep crisis in the economic and political life of Rome. Unable to pay sufficient attention to all their provinces, the Roman emperors concentrated their forces on keeping control of mainly the eastern lands. Abandoned Gaul in 260 and 276 suffered greatly from the raids of the newly formed Germanic tribal unions of Alemanni and Franks. The outbreak of civil war, which engulfed the lands of Gaul, Britain and Spain, led to the emergence of a series of "Gallic emperors", the first of which was Marcus Postumus (ruled 260-268). ... In the years 279-80. a new series of riots followed. Despite the relative strengthening of central authority during the reign of the emperors Aurelian (ruled 270-275), Probus (276-282) and Karin (283-285), the situation in the western part of the Roman Empire changed radically. The border area between the Rhine and the Danube was abolished, and since the reign of Emperor Probus, the Romans were actively engaged in fortifying the cities of Gaul. For these purposes, building materials were used, obtained from the ancient border fortifications, which served to protect against the raids of neighboring barbarian tribes. In the meantime, the countryside was defenseless against the numerous raids of marauding peasants. It is worth noting the fact that the crisis was not used by the local elite to gain independence from the imperial center. Although the "Gallic Empire" was ruled largely by Celtic nobles, it was entirely dependent on the loyalty of the Rhine army. As a result, the ruling elite was guided not by Gallic, but by Gallo-Roman interests, in particular, supporting the idea of ​​the existence of a powerful line of fortifications along the Rhine.

As a result of the radical reforms of the emperor Diocletian and his successors at the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 4th centuries, Gaul managed to improve the situation so much that its political status noticeably increased. The main reason for this was the revived strategy of defending Italy from the Rhine. The imperial presence in the province, which became visible and permanent, pursued as its goal the assertion of the loyalty of the Rhine garrison and of the civilian population, entirely dependent on its protection. The highest ranking officials set up their residences here; a series of emperors and usurpers, including Constantine I (reigned 306-337), Julian (355-363), Valentinian I (364-375), Gratian (375-383) and Magnus Maximus (383-388), at least for a while, chose Gaul as the seat of his court. As a rule, the government was located in the city of Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), which was at one time the main settlement of the Celtic tribe Trever and the capital of the province of Belgica, nicknamed because of its current importance "Western Rome". An interesting exception to the rule was Julian, who, due to the military threat to Trier, chose to place his residence in Paris, giving the city for the first time a taste of its future greatness. Throughout the entire IV century (especially its second half), due to constant pressure from the Germans and internal political struggle, the Rhine defense line was repeatedly subjected to significant destruction, however, subsequently it was possible to restore it every time.

The described time in Gaul was marked by relative economic prosperity, which, however, was rather unstable and did not cover all strata of society. The collection of taxes, predominantly in kind, negatively affected the development of commercial relations, and the attraction of a large number of captive barbarians to agricultural work indicated a significant shortage of labor within the province. Trier was built up with numerous luxurious buildings, while other Gallic cities were never properly rebuilt after significant wartime destruction. The wealthy strata, whose representatives were probably not the direct descendants of the former Gallic aristocracy (destroyed during the crisis of the third century), had much greater ambitions than their predecessors. Focusing on the urban centers of the province, the new Gallic elite tried their best to secure positions in the imperial administration, which was now within immediate reach. The main argument of the Gallic nobles in favor of their prerogatives was their desire to improve their educational level. The Gallo-Roman educational system, which grew out of the Gallo-Celtic love of oratory, had a long standing reputation, but it was in the 4th century that it reached its highest level of development. The centers of education in Gaul were the universities famous at that time, one of which was located in the city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux). Over the course of the century, the Gaulish educated elite gained more and more power; the most famous native of her circles - Avsonius (about 310 - about 392), a poet and professor from Burdigala, was appointed educator of the future emperor Gratian, and later became his adviser. Representatives of the Gallic educated aristocracy of that time, in their free time from public service, preferred to live in the countryside; the end of the 4th century was marked by the construction of a large number of country villas, especially in the southeastern part of Gaul. There were also those among the Gauls who sought to devote themselves to serving a higher power than the Roman emperor. Christianity, first introduced to the Gaulish soil only in the middle of the 3rd century by Dionysius of Paris, took root here very strongly in the next century. On the basis of the Roman administrative division of the province, the episcopal hierarchy was formed, and later, through the efforts of Martin of Tours (c. 316-397), the first monasteries appeared in Gaul.

Sunset of Roman Gaul (c. 400-c. 500)

Beginning in 395, when the Roman Empire was divided into western and eastern parts, the state plunged into a series of incessant feuds, which became the signal for the intensification of barbarian raids. Germanic tribes deeply invaded the Danube regions and even penetrated the Apennine Peninsula. The Rhine defense line again fell into disrepair, the city of Arelat (Arles) became the administrative center of Gaul. The result of these actions was a large-scale invasion of the Germanic tribes, the turning point of which was the crossing of the Rhine in 405-406; Gaul was caught in a civil war. By 418, the Franks and Burgundians managed to capture the Roman provinces on the west bank of the Rhine, while the Visigoths settled in Aquitaine. These Germanic tribes were nominally allies of Rome, and thanks to the wise policy of the commander Flavius ​​Aetius, the empire for the time being managed to keep them under its control. The death of Aetius in 454 and the ever-growing helplessness of the central government of the Western Roman Empire, which only intensified after the capture of Africa by the vandals, led to an almost complete collapse of the administrative system in Gaul. Power over the province passed into the hands of the Visigoths. At first, they formally recognized the supreme power of the Emperor Avita (ruled 455-456), but later the Visigoth kings became the sovereign masters of Gaul, the most prominent of whom was King Eirich (ruled 466-484). ... was marked by the constant raids of the Visigoths in the eastern territories of Gaul, still under the control of Rome, at the same time, the Burgundians confidently advanced in the western direction from the side of the captured Sapaudia (present-day Savoy). In 476, the last Roman possessions in Provence were officially taken over by the Visigoths.

This entire period turned out to be the hardest test for the population of Gaul. The cities near the Rhine were completely destroyed by the war. Numerous refugees flocked south, into areas still controlled by the Roman administration. However, instead of the expected support, they found there only the yoke of an unfair tax system and humiliation from corrupt officials. As the chronicler of that era, Sidonius Apollinarius (c. 430 - c. 490) testifies, despite all the difficulties of the time of troubles, the economic weight and way of life of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy remained incredibly stable under the rule of various rulers, whether they were Roman emperors or kings. barbarians. Many Gallic nobles at that time, like Sidonius himself, wishing to consolidate their position in society, took the episcopal dignity. Until the middle of the 5th century, the political and spiritual leaders of Gallic society, despite the need to adapt to the lifestyle brought by the barbaric conquerors, continued to turn their views to Rome, claiming high positions and patronage. At the same time, representatives of the highest circles of Gaul increasingly collaborated with the German rulers and often occupied high military and administrative positions at their courts. Thus, at least in the central and southern regions of the province, Gallo-Roman cultural heritage was largely preserved and played a significant role in the formation of future kingdoms.

John Frederick Drinkwater

Based on materials from the encyclopedia "Britannica"
Translated from English by Andrey Volkov

In ancient times, Gaul was considered the birthplace of the Celts. It was here that the La Tene archaeological culture characteristic of the Celts developed. From here their campaigns began, which allowed them to settle in the wide expanses of the European continent. After the Romans conquered Cisalpine Gaul and defeated the Celts who lived in the Danube, their greedy eyes turned to the Alps.

Borders of Gaul

The most detailed information about Gaul and its inhabitants was left by Gaius Julius Caesar in the "Notes on the Gallic War", which he wrote in 58-51 BC. NS. "Gaul as a whole" (tota Gallia) approximately corresponds to the territory of modern France, Belgium, Luxembourg, separate regions of Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands. Caesar divided it into three parts, in one of which the Belgaes lived (north of the Seine and Marne, south and west of the Ardennes), in the other - the Aquitaines (from the Pyrenees to the hills in the Garonne basin), in the third - the Gauls proper (between the Rhone, Seine and upper Rhine). These three areas differed in their language, customs and laws.

Gaul and the settlement of the Gallic tribes in the 1st century BC NS.

In ancient times, Gaul was inhabited by many tribes, both large, numbering about 200 thousand people, and the smallest, including up to 50 thousand people. One of the most powerful and richest tribes of Gaul were the Arverni, who inhabited the territory of modern Auvergne. Dependent allies and clients of the Arverni were the Sequans in modern Franche-Comté and the Allobrogues in the Vienne area. The opponents of the Arvern were the Aedui in the area between Sona and Oak.

Another powerful and wealthy Celtic tribe was the Helvetians in what is now Switzerland. The Lingons lived in the area between the Seine and the Loire, the Biturigs - along the banks of the Loire, Trevers - on the Moselle, the Senones inhabited the Seine valley. The middle Meuse was inhabited by tribes that Caesar calls the Germans, but judging by their names: the Eburnons, Segners and others, they were also Celts.

However, according to reports by other authors, the Aquitanians in their language and appearance were more reminiscent of the Iberians than their Gauls neighbors. In general, in Gaul at this time it is difficult to draw an ethnic boundary between different peoples. The tribes we know were political entities, and their boundaries did not coincide with ethnic or linguistic divisions.

La Tene archaeological culture

Historians are poorly informed about the earlier picture of settlement (between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC), but some of its elements make it possible to present archaeological data. After 475 BC. NS. on the territory of central and western Europe, the late stage of the Hallstatt archaeological culture was replaced by the early stage of Laten.

The most important sign of these changes is the spread of a new style of art and the transition from the previously dominant traditions of the geometric style to the use of complex combinations of wavy lines of ornament. Its main elements were formed on the basis of borrowings, including Mediterranean motives. Jewelry covered both luxury items and everyday items.

The disappearance of the princely burial mounds with rich offerings and the widespread distribution of simple ground burials with corpses is also a new element that determined the appearance of the La Tene archaeological culture. The burial ritual as a whole has become much more modest in comparison with the previous era, which may correspond to the simplified social structure. Men were buried with weapons, especially swords and spears, women with jewelry, mainly bracelets and brooches, girls with amulets.

Burial of a noble Gaul with weapons and a chariot.
Reconstruction by P. Connolly

In some burials that belonged to representatives of the nobility, the four-wheeled carriage of the Hallstatt era was replaced by a two-wheeled war chariot, which was so important in the future for the military affairs of the Celts. To date, more than 200 such burials are known, mainly located on the territory of northeastern France and western Germany, up to the banks of the Rhine. This region, which included the areas in the upper Marne and Seine, the Moselle valley and the region along the middle course of the Rhine and identified by archaeologists as the distribution area of ​​the "culture of the Marne", includes the earliest centers of La Tene culture. From here it gradually spreads to the west and south.

Previously, this process was seen as a consequence of the movement of the Celtic tribes, who gradually conquered the local population. Now the process of "celtization" of Gaul seems to be much more complicated. Objects of a typical La Tène appearance, such as weapons or jewelry, found in burials of the 5th – 4th centuries BC. e., characterize the status of their speakers rather than their ethnic or linguistic affiliation. Their spread may indicate the displacement of very small groups of the population, such as units of warriors led by chariot leaders, or even artels of artisans.

Late Hallstatt, early Laten and the "culture of the Marne"

Some goods may have been specially manufactured for export, sometimes to very remote areas. In contrast to the results of burial excavations, demonstrating the spread of a new artistic style, excavations of settlements in western and southern Gaul indicate a high degree of continuity with the previous era. In general, it is believed that the culture of Laten in these regions mainly spread while maintaining the continuity of the earlier ethnic and linguistic situation.

Only at the turn of the IV-III centuries BC. NS. in the south of Aquitaine and in Languedoc, La Tène weapons and jewelry are found in fairly large numbers, which corresponds to the horizon of destruction of local political centers. These indisputable traces of hostilities are taken by archaeologists as evidence of the emergence of new groups of conquerors in the region, who subjugated the local population to their power.

Southern Gaul at the end of the 3rd century BC NS.

On the political situation in southern Gaul at the end of the 3rd century BC NS. known from the history of Hannibal's campaign, which he made in the summer of 218 BC. NS. According to Polybius, the south of Gaul between the Pyrenees and the Rhone was densely populated by Celtic tribes, the largest of which were the Volca. Volki-tektosagi, whose center was Tolosa (Toulouse), lived on the right bank of the Rhone. The Arecomic wolves with the capital in Nemaus (Nîmes) lived in the lower reaches of the Rhone, both on the right and left banks of it.

Bronze figurine of the 4th century BC e., depicting a Gallic warrior dressed in a Greek linen carapace and an Etruscan helmet with cheeks

With the approach of Hannibal, they intended to oppose the passage of the Carthaginians and gathered in large numbers on the left bank of the river. Hannibal sent part of his soldiers to the rear of the barbarians, with a double blow put them to flight and scattered their hordes and made the crossing. Then he went upstream of the Rhone to the confluence of the Ysera, where the allobrogs lived - "One of the first peoples at that time in Gaul, both in power and in glory", as Titus Livy wrote about them.

The Allobrogians aided Hannibal, provided his army with food and supplies, and provided him with guides. From the lands of the allobrogues, Hannibal went east to the lands of the tricastins, then to the possessions of the vocontius, then to the tricorians. From there, meeting no resistance, the Carthaginian military leader approached the Alps.

Roman conquest of southern Gaul and establishment of the Province of Narbonne

Romans, 200-191 BC. NS. having conquered Cisalpine Gaul, they crossed the Alps several times during their wars with the Ligurs. In 154 BC. NS. Consul Quintus Opimius, at the request of the Massaliots, drove away from the walls of Antipolis (Antibes) and Nicaea (Nice) the Ligurs-Oxybians and Deciets who were besieging them.

In 125 BC. NS. The Massaliots again turned to Rome for help against the Salluvian Ligurs who threatened them. Consul Mark Fulvius Flaccus in 124 BC NS. defeated the Salluvians, and also defeated their Vokontis allies. The king of the Salluvians, Tutomotul, expelled by the Romans, found protection from the allobrogues. The Romans turned to those with a demand to hand over the fugitive to them, but were refused. The Allobrogues began to prepare for war. In 123 BC. NS. Guy Sextius Calvin inflicted a heavy defeat on them near the city of Aqua Sextius (Ex), which he later founded.

The successor of Sextius Calvin, the consul Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, intended to move the war deep into the possessions of the Allobrogians themselves, but then the king of the powerful Arvern tribe, Bituit, intervened in the conflict. For the time being, he indifferently looked at the events that affected only his eastern neighbors, but this time he offered his participants his mediation in the negotiations. When the Romans rejected him, Bituit and his army joined the Allobrog.

To the aid of Domitius Ahenobarbus in 121 BC. NS. consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Emilian came. The number of the united Roman army reached 30 thousand people, but the opponents outnumbered it at least four times. August 8, 121 BC NS. at the confluence of the Ysera with the Rhone, a decisive battle took place, in which the Romans won a complete victory. The Arverni suffered huge losses, especially when the bridge collapsed under the weight of the fleeing and thousands of people drowned in the river.

Statue of a Gallic warrior from Mondragon, 2nd century BC NS. Avignon Museum

Bituit proposed to the Allobrogians to immediately conclude peace, and Fabius Maximus added the honorary nickname of Allobrog to his name. Soon he left for Rome, instructing Domitius Ahenobarbus to end the war. Feeling a grudge against Bituitus for advising the allobrogues to surrender to Fabius Maximus, and not to him, Domitius cunningly captured the king of the Arverni and his son, and sent them both to Rome. After the triumph of Fabius Maximus, in which Bituit performed dressed in silver armor, he was settled in Alba of Futsin.

The war with the Arverni then resumed. A new battle took place at Vindalia (Bendarid) at the confluence of the Sorgi with the Rhone, in which the Romans won another victory, mainly thanks to the use of war elephants. Domitius Ahenobarbus also celebrated a victorious triumph in Rome in 120 BC. NS. Despite the defeat, the Arverni retained their independence, losing only a number of southern regions. And the Ligurian and Gallic tribes who lived between the Alps and the Rhone, including the Allobrogues, became Roman subjects. The capital of the province created by the Romans was founded in 118 BC. NS. city ​​of Narbonne.

Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutons

The further involvement of Rome in Gallic politics was facilitated by the resettlement of the Cimbri and Teutons, which affected and agitated the entire barbarian world of Western and Central Europe. Plutarch writes:

“At first they did not believe the rumors about the strength and multiplicity of the advancing hordes, but then we became convinced that they were even inferior to reality. In fact, only armed men marched three hundred thousand, and behind them a crowd of women and children, as they said, outnumbered them ... Before their courage and audacity it was impossible to resist, and in battle with speed and strength they were like fire. So no one could withstand their onslaught and everyone they attacked became their prey. "

Around 120 BC NS. the Cimbri attacked the fighting men living on the territory of the Czech Republic. About 114 BC NS. they were attacked by the Skordisks on the Danube. In 113 BC. NS. the Cimbri ended up in the eastern alpine foothills, where the noriks and tavrisks lived. Consul Gnei Papyriy Carbon met their army here and demanded that the barbarians leave the Tavrisks, friendly to the Romans, in peace. They seemed to agree, but the consul decided to attack them during the truce. In the battle that followed, he was utterly defeated, and only the storm that broke out prevented the complete destruction of the Roman army.

After that, the Cimbri, having annexed the Teuton tribe somewhere along the way, bypassed the Alps from the north and invaded Gaul. In 109 BC. NS. they turned to the consul Marcus Junius Silan, who was here, with a request to give them free lands for settlement. The consul refused, and then he himself suddenly attacked the barbarians. In battle, he suffered a severe defeat, even the Roman camp was captured.

The Senate feared an invasion of Italy, but the Cimbri, along with the Teutons, turned north and left to plunder Gaul. The details of their campaign are known only from fragmentary information from the Notes of Guy Julius Caesar. Even 50 years later, the Gauls still remembered the devastation of their land, about the population driven to the cities, where it was so in need of food that it was forced to eat human flesh.

Sestertius Marcus Servilius depicting a Roman infantryman fighting a Gaulish horseman, 100 BC NS.

A series of military setbacks set in motion the Gallic tribes. In 107 BC. NS. Tigurins and Tougens from the Helvetian tribe living in southwestern Switzerland crossed the Jura Mountains and ended up in the Narbonne province. Here they met with the army of the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, which they lured into an ambush and destroyed. The commander himself and most of his troops were killed, the survivors were forced to shameful surrender and hand over the convoy. In the same year, the inhabitants of Tolosa (Toulouse) imprisoned their Roman garrison in chains. Fortunately for the Romans, the Helvetians did not go further, and the Cimbri were at that time far away.

Consul Quintus Servilius Cepion in 106 BC NS. managed, with the help of treason, to take possession of the city again and to remove the treasures stored here from the famous temple of Apollo. According to legend, it was gold stolen by Brenn from the Delphic Temple. The size of the treasures was estimated at 110,000 pounds of silver and 5,000 pounds of gold, but even colossal figures were named. However, all the treasures were stolen by robbers between Tolosa and Massalia, attacking a weak convoy. It was said that the initiator of the attack was the consul himself and his headquarters.

In 105 BC. NS. the Cimbri reappeared at the borders of the Roman possessions in Gaul. On the right bank of the Rhone stood the army of Servilius Cepion, on the left, near Arausion (Orange), the consul Gnei Mallius Maximus took a position with his army. Subordinate to Mallius Maximus, the detachment of Marcus Aurelius Scaurus was moved forward to warn of the possible approach of the barbarians. This detachment underwent the first attack and was utterly defeated, and the commander of Aurelius Scaurus was taken prisoner.

A Gaulish horseman with a characteristic hairstyle, armed with a sword and shield of the traditional appearance. Fragment of relief on a clay lamp from the 1st century BC NS.

The defeat sobered the consul, and he ordered Servilius Cepio to cross to him on the left bank in order to unite his armies. He followed the order, but set up his own camp. Both commanders were divided by a sharp personal enmity, which they could not forget even in the face of a common enemy. Learning that Mallyus Maximus began negotiations with the ambassadors of the Cimbri and fearing that the honor of victory over them would fall only to him, Servilius Cepion with his soldiers hastened to strike the enemy.

In a battle fought on October 6, 105 BC. e., at first he himself was defeated, then the same fate befell the second Roman army. According to Roman historians, up to 80 thousand soldiers and 40 thousand more non-combatants accompanying the army died. Alpine passes, along which the route to Italy ran, turned out to be open. The barbarians, however, did not seize the chance, and instead, dividing in two, again began to ravage Gaul. The following year, they tried to invade Spain through the Pyrenees, but they were stopped.

Defeat of the Teutons and Cimbri

In 102 BC. NS. The Cimbri from Spain returned to Narbonne Gaul and from there moved directly to Italy. On the way, their army split up. The Teutons and Ambrons took a shorter route through the Rhone Valley and the western Alpine passes. The Cimbri were supposed to bypass the Alps from the north at this time and invade Italy through the Brenner Pass.

Over the past three years, the Romans have taken a number of measures to defend Italy. In Narbonne Gaul, they deployed an army of 40,000 under the command of Guy Marie. An experienced military leader tirelessly trained his warriors, preparing them to face a formidable foe.

The Teutons came first. Marius met them in a fortified camp at the confluence of the Ysera and the Rhone. The barbarians stormed it for three days, but could not break through the fortifications. Then they decided to bypass the camp. For six days the Teutons passed by the Romans in a continuous stream, mockingly asking the soldiers if they wanted to convey something to their wives, since they, they say, would soon be in Italy.

Marius let the enemy pass by, and then followed him, each time arranging a fortified parking lot. At the Aqua Sextius, the scuffle of the two armies on the bank of the stream gradually escalated into a full-scale battle, in which the Teutonic allies Ambrons were defeated.

The next day, the Teutons attacked the Roman camp in full force. Despite the steepness of the slope, they ran up to the top of the hill, where the legions were lined up. After stubborn hand-to-hand combat, the Romans managed to push the enemy back into the valley. At this time, fresh reserves were struck from an ambush in the back of the barbarians. The Teutons could not stand the attack and fled in panic. About 90 thousand people were killed, another 20 thousand were taken prisoner.

Roman soldiers of the 2nd – 1st centuries BC NS. on the relief of the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus. Louvre, Paris

At this time, the Cimbri crossed the Alps and, on the banks of the Adige, attacked another Roman consul, Quintus Lutatius Catullus, whose army was supposed to cover the way to Italy from the northeast. At the very first attack, the Romans fled and it was only thanks to the courage of the military leader that they managed to avoid a catastrophe. The whole country between the Alps and the Po coast was occupied by barbarians.

In the spring of 101 BC. NS. Marius and his soldiers came to the aid of a colleague, and the united Roman army again blocked the path to the south for the barbarians. July 30, 101 BC NS. the opponents met at the Ravdin field south of Wercell. In the center of the Roman position, 20 thousand of Catullus' soldiers lined up, on the flanks were 32 thousand of Mary's soldiers. The front of the barbarians, which significantly outnumbered the Roman army, stretched for 5.3 km.

The Cimbrian cavalry struck first. Retreating, she dragged some of the soldiers of Mary to the right, while the center of the Romans was attacked by the bulk of the barbarian infantry. After a long hand-to-hand fight, the Cimbri were defeated and fled. Maria's soldiers plundered their camp and staged a brutal massacre. 120 thousand barbarians died, including women and children, another 60 thousand people were taken prisoner.

So the Romans managed to ward off the danger hanging over Italy. For this victory, Marius was called the “father of the fatherland” and the second founder of Rome.

Literature:

1. Birkhan G. Celts. History and culture. - M., 2007.
2. Collis J. Celts: origins, history, myth. - M., 2007.
3. Mongayt A. L. Archeology of Western Europe: Bronze and Iron Ages. - M .: Science, 1974.
4. Phillip J. Celts and Celtic Civilization. - Prague. 1961.
5. Shchukin M. B. At the turn of the era. - SPb: Farn, 1994.
6. Mommsen T. History of Rome. Volume 3.- SPb .: Nauka, 2005.
7. Shchukin M.B., Eremenko V.E. To the problem of Cimbri, Teutons and Celto-Scythians. // ASGE. - 1999. - No. 34. - P. 134-160.

in ancient times, the area that occupied the territory between the Po River and the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean. From the VI century. BC NS. inhabited by the Celts, who received the name "Gauls" from the Romans. Around 220 BC NS. the territory of Cisalpine Georgia (between the Po and the Alps) was subordinated to the Romans and turned into a Roman province. In the years 58-51. BC NS. Caesar conquered the rest of the so-called Transalpine Georgia, and in 16 BC. NS. divided into 4 Roman provinces. From the beginning of the 5th century. n. NS. the territory of Georgia was conquered by the Germanic tribes and entered at the end of the 5th century. to the Frankish state.

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Gaul

the historical region of Europe between the Po River and the Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean (Transalpine Gaul). From the 6th century. BC. was inhabited by Gauls (part of the Celts). At the end of the 2nd century. the Romans conquered the tribes of southern Gaul and formed the province of Narbonne Gaul (South of France). In 58 - 51 years. Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul. Under Emperor Augustus, Gaul was divided into provinces: Narbonne Gaul, Lugdun Gaul, Aquitaine and Belgica. The center of the last three was the city of Lugdunum (now Lyon, founded in 43 BC). In the 1st - 2nd centuries. AD large cities grew: Nemausus (now Nimes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), and others. In the third century, under the pressure of the German tribes and the crisis of the Roman Empire, Gaul, Britain and Spain for a short time separated from Rome. In 273, the emperor Aurelian reunited Gaul with the empire. At the beginning of the 5th century. the first barbarian state of the Burgundians arose on the territory of Gaul. At the end of the 5th century. Frankish king Clovis conquered almost all of Gaul, which marked the beginning of the Frankish state.

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GAUL

ist. region between p. Po and Alps (Tsisalpinskaya G.) and between the Alps, Mediterranean m., Pyrenees, Atlantich. OK. (Transalpinskaya G.). Inhabited since the 6th century. BC. Gauls (a branch of the Celts), mixing. with Iberians and Ligurs. In the 20s. 2 c. BC. Romans early. the war with the tribes of the South of Georgia, after graduating. the formation of Rome. province centered in Narbonne. In 58 - 51 BC. Julius Caesar conquered the rest of the city. In 16 BC. Augustus divided Georgia into four provinces: Narbonne, G., Lugdun, Aquitaine, and Belgica. The center of the last three was Lugdunum (Lyon), founded. in 43 BC The severity of Rome. taxes and the cruelty of usurers repeatedly provoked uprisings of local tribes (52 - 51, 38, 12 BC, 21 AD); the largest of these was the uprising of Civilis. At 258, in a difficult external. and int. provisions of Rome. gos., G., together with Britain and Spain, separated from Rome and created their empire headed by Postumus (258 - 268). Empire of Substances. 15 years old, but its last ruler Tetrik (270 - 273), being unable to cope with the soldier. revolts and began. rebuilding the bagaud, surrendered imp. Aurelian, and G. resoed. with an empire. In the 4th century. G. was divided into 17 provinces that became part of Gallsk. and Viensk. dioceses.

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Gaul

Gaul, as the Romans called the vast region. by 3. Europe, inhabited by Celts (Gauls). The Gauls invaded North. Italy in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. In 222 BC. ter. to the south of the Alps, Rome was proclaimed. prov. - Cisalpine G. The Rubicon River separated it from Italy itself. Region to the north from the r. Po was known as Transpadanskaya G., and to the south - Tsispadanskaya G. On the other side of the Mediterranean Alps. coast of modern France and adjacent regions. were called. Narbonne (Transalpine) Georgia, or, after its capture by the Romans in 121 BC, simply "Provinces" (hence the modern name. "Provence). The capital of this province was Narbonne. In 59 BC. BC Julius Caesar was entrusted with the administration of Cisalpine and Narbonne G. During the "Gallic Wars" he expanded Rome. possession to the shores of the Atlantic, the English Channel and the Rhine, forming Great G. Apart from the war with Vercingetorig, Caesar encountered only weak attempts of resistance here. He is in 49 BC. extended the right to Rome. citizenship to Transpadan G., and the whole of Cisalpine G. was annexed to Italy "by Augustus, and thus ceased to be a prov. (Cispadan G. was granted, the rights of citizenship in 90 BC). August divided Great Georgia to Lugudun (Lyons), Aquitaine, and Belgica, headed by the Roman legates. Lyon became the seat of the provincial Diet of the Three Gauls. At the end of the third century, the emperors-"usurpers" created a short-lived semi-independent "Gallic Empire" It served as a buffer during the invasion of the Germans. Located on the outskirts of the Western Empire, Georgia itself was open to the invasion of the Goths, Huns, and Vandals. AD it was not inhabited by the "Franks."

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Gaul

lat. Gallia)

the country of the Gauls in Zap. Europe; occupied the territory of the present. North. Italy, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany on the left side of the Rhine. The Romans divided Georgia into two parts: G. Cisalpine (the territory of northern Italy) and G. Transalpine (transalpine). The Gauls (a branch of the Celts) began to settle in Georgia in the 6th century. BC, in the south and southwest they assimilated with the Iberians and Ligurs.

In the 20s. II century BC. the Romans began a war with the Gauls, eventually forming a province on the territory of modern Provence with the center in Narbonne. In 58 - 51 years. BC. G. was conquered by J. Caesar. In 16 BC. Emperor Augustus divided G. into four Rom. provinces: G. Narbonne, G. Lugudun, Aquitaine and Belgica. During the period of barbarian raids on the territory of Georgia, the emperor Maximian gave the lands to the latter to the Salic Franks. At the end of the 5th century. AD G. was divided between the Franks, Alemanni, Burgundians, Visigoths and Bretons. Under Clodwick, G. completely became the possession of the Franks.

Belova N.N. Slavery in Roman Gaul // Slavery in the western provinces of the Roman Empire in the 1st - 3rd centuries. M., 1977; Shkunaev S.V. The culture of Gaul and Romanization // Culture of Ancient Rome: In 2 volumes. Vol. 2 M., 1985; Shtaerman E.M. Ancient Gaul (a review of post-war bourgeois historiography) // VDI. 1951. No. 1; Drinkwater J.F. Roman Gaul: The three provinces, 58 B.C. - A.D. 260. Ithaca, New York, 1983; Guillian C. Histoire de la Gaule. T. 1-8. Paris, 1907-1926; Hatt J.J. Histoire de la Gaule Romaine / 120 avant J.C. - 451 apres J.C. / .2. Ed. Paris, 1966.

(I. A. Lisovy, K. A. Revyako. The ancient world in terms, names and titles: Dictionary-reference book on the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome / Scientific ed. A. I. Nemirovsky. - 3rd ed. - Minsk: Belarus, 2001)

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Gaul

(lat. Gallia), the land of the Gauls, essentially present-day France, West. Switzerland and Belgium, as well as Cisalpine Gaul and western. part of the Po plain. In the south sovr. France by the Greeks approx. 600 BC NS. Massalia (Marseille) was founded. In the end. 2 c. BC NS. the Romans conquered the South. France and founded prov. G. Narbonensis (G. Narbonensis) with ch. city ​​of Narbonom. In 58 - 51 BC NS. Caesar waged war in Georgia (about this his book "Notes on the Gallic War") and made it Rome. prov. all the way to the Rhine. In 27 BC. NS. August finally settled the government of the country, dividing it into three parts: Aquitaine, G. Lugudun (with the capital Lugudun - Lyon) and Belgica. This part of G. was called "Shaggy G." (G. comata) over the long hair of the inhabitants as opposed to old Rome. prov. G. Narbonne. The Romanization of the country proceeded at a rapid pace, but repeatedly encountered resistance: the uprising of Sacrovir (21), Vindex and Civilis (68 - 69). Social contradictions and nat. interests led to the middle. 3 c. for a short time to the formation of a separate. the Gallic state, in the 5th century. to the formation of the state of Syagria, which, being the last Rome. commander, created in 476 in G. a special possession between the Loire and the Somme, but in 486 after the victory of Clovis at Soissons, it suffered a fiasco. Trade, crafts, and sciences flourished in Georgia. Approximately from mid. 2 c. the struggle of the masses against Rome began. domination, which continued later in alliance with the Germans who had penetrated Germany, the tribes (the struggle of the Bagaud). Name Rome. prov. in South. G. has survived in the present designation of Provence. Regions on the Rhine were divided under Augustus into two military districts, under Domitian they were transformed into independent prov. Upper and Lower Germany (Germania Superior and Germania Inferior).

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GAUL

ist. region of Europe between the r. Po and the Alps (Cisalpine G. - Gallia Cisalpina) and between the Alps, Mediterranean m., Pyrenees, Atlantich. OK. (Transalpine G. - Gallia Transalpina). Inhabited since the 6th century. BC NS. Gauls (a branch of the Celts), who mixed in the south and south-west. with Iberians and Ligurs. In the 20s. 2 c. BC NS. the Romans began a war with the tribes of the South of Georgia, which ended in the formation of the territory. modern Provence rome. province centered in Narbonne. In 58-51 BC. NS. Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Georgia (see Caesar's Gallic campaigns). In 16 BC. NS. Augustus divided Georgia into four provinces: Narbonne G., Lugdun G., Aquitaine, and Belgica. The center of the last three was Lugdunum (Lyon), founded. in 43 BC NS. The severity of Roman taxes and the cruelty of usurers repeatedly provoked uprisings of local tribes (52-51, 38, 12 BC, 21 AD), the largest of which was the uprising of Civilis. However, the local nobility, having gained access to the Senate from the time of Claudius and gradually merging with the ruling class of the empire, stopped the struggle with Rome. The spread of Rome. forms x-va strengthened the economy of G. In the end. 1st and 2nd centuries. the number of slave owners is multiplied. villas, large cities are growing: Narbo-Martius (Narbonne), Lugdunum (Lyon), Nemausus (Nimes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), they reach a high level with. industry, metallurgy, ceramic. and text. production, external and int. trade. However, economical. the upsurge based on the exploitation of slaves and colonists was short-lived. Already from the beginning. 3 c. the decline of handicrafts and trade begins, the impoverishment of cities, accompanied by the growth of large landownership and the enslavement of the peasants who were converted into columns. K ser. 3 c. the crisis is aggravated by the increasing onslaught on G. germ. tribes. At 258, in a difficult external. and int. provisions of Rome. gos-va, G., together with Britain and Spain, separated from Rome and created their own empire headed by Postumus (258-268). The empire lasted 15 years, but its last ruler Tetrik (270-273), unable to cope with the soldiers' revolts and the outbreak of the Bagaud revolt, surrendered to them. Aurelian, and G. was reunited with the empire. In the 4th century. G. was divided into 17 provinces, which became part of the Gallic and Viennese dioceses. The victories of Diocletian's co-rulers over the Germans and the influx of prisoners who were converted into columns slightly improved the economy. position of G., but soon because of the severity of taxes and renewed invasions of the barbarians, it sharply worsened. In 406 on the Rhine, the first in G. so-called. barbarian state - the state of the Burgundians; in 418 the Visigoths received part of Aquitaine as federates. From that time on, the Germans, meeting the support of the cruelly exploited columns, seized one part of Georgia after another. The seizure of Georgia is completed by the Frankish king Clovis, who annexed in 486 territories. north of the Loire. Lit .: Shtaerman E. M., Ancient Gaul, "VDI", 1951, No 1; Jullian C., Histoire de la Gaule, t. 1-8, P., 1907-1926; Chilver G. E. F., Cisalpine Gaul. Social and economic history from 49 V.S. to the death of Trajan, Oxf., 1941. E. M. Shtaerman. Moscow. - *** - *** - *** - Gaul at the beginning of the 4th century

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GAUL

1. ?? ???????, later ???????, also G. Transalpina (?? -per? lpeio? ???????), in contrast to G. Cisalpina (Upper Italy), in the reign of Augustus had the following borders: to the south - the Mediterranean Sea, called in this part Gallicus sinus, and the Pyrenees, which separated it from Spain; to the west - the Atlantic Ocean, to the northwest - fretum Gallicum and the German Ocean, to the east - the Rhine (border of Germany), the river Var (Varus) and the Alps (border of Italy), so that in addition to present-day France, the name G. was understood as Belgium, part of the Netherlands, the trans-Rhine regions of Germany and most of Switzerland. The very unfavorable opinion of the Romans about the soil and climate of the region changed upon closer acquaintance with it. Uplands stretch across the interior of the land, though not particularly significant. The mountains separating the country from Spain - the Pyrenees, from Italy - the Alps; Mons Cebenna (?? ???????? ?? o?),?. The Cévennes, extends southward for 250 Roman miles along the western bank of the Rhone River, bordering the regions of Aquitania and G. Narbonensis. A separate mountain of Cévennes was M. Lesora (n. Lozère) near the city of Anderitum. M. Iura (?????) stretches from Lake Geneva (Lacus Lemanus) to the Rhine; the eastern part of this ridge was called M. Vocetius (n. B? zberg). In the north, it is adjacent to M. Vosegus, in French les Vosges, in German Wasgau, Vogesen and stretches along the Rhine to the Moselle River; finally, the Arduenna silva (n. Ardennen and Eifel) stretches from the Rhine in the west to the Scaldis springs. From among the rivers flow into the Mediterranean Sea: Varus (n.Var), Rhodanus (Rh? Ne) with tributaries of the Arar (later - Saucona, therefore n. Sa? Ne) - Dubis (Doubs) and Vardo (Gard) on the right side, a Isara (Is? re), Druentia (Durance) on the left side; Atax (Aude), Telis (Tet) into the ocean: Aturis (Adour), Garumna (Garonne), with the tributaries Tarnis (Tarn) and Veronius (Aveyron), Oltis (Lot), Duranius (Dordogne) on the right side; Carantonus (Charente); Liger (Loire) with tributaries Elaver (Allier) on the left, Sartha (Sarthe) and Meduana (Mayenne) on the right; Sequana (Seine) with tributaries Icaunus (Yonne) and Ebura (Eure) on the left side, and Matrona (Marne), Isara (Oise) and Axona (Aisne) on the right side; Samara (Somme); to the German Ocean: Scaldis (Scheide); Mosa (Maas) with the tributary Sabis (Sambre); Rhenus (Rhein) with the tributary Ararius (Aar), Helella (III), Nava (Nahe), Mosella (Mosel) with the tributary Saravus (Saar). Of the lakes, the remarkable Lacus Lemanus (???????), n. Lac L? Man, through which the river Rhodanus flows. The land was rich in breads and fruits of all kinds, excellent woods, horses, cattle, pigs, hares, geese, etc. A lot of gold, copper, lead, iron and crystal were mined from the mines. The most ancient inhabitants are: in the west, enclosed by the rivers Garonne and Rhone - the Iberians, here called Aquitanians, between them the most important tribe of Vaska in the Pyrenees, which is why this area in the Middle Ages was called Vasconia (Gascogne); to the east in the Alps - the Ligurians (??????), a people related to the Celts, and most closely with the Helvetians; their tribes were Salluvii or Salyes and Vocontii. Both those and others were partly displaced, partly subdued (on the southern coast not earlier than 300 BC) by the Celtic or Gallic peoples (??????), who came from the east and north and occupied the British Isles from ancient times , western and southern Germany and all the upper reaches of the Danube. They are divided according to their, still existing, dialects, at least three large tribes, into the northwestern, Gaelic (proper Gadelian), to which the Irish and Scots (Scoti) belong, actually Celtic in Central Gaul, and Cimmerian in the southeast, to which the southern British, the Helvetians, the Boyi, the Windeliks, and the southeastern Gauls, extending as far as Asia Minor belong. From the Celtic tribe, which the Greeks first met on the Ligurian coast, the name ?????? was transferred to the whole people, while the Romans used the name Galli (that is, warriors named so from a battle cry) (Greek ???????), this name was also characteristic of the Celtic peoples in Upper Italy - Galli Cisalpini ... The common root of these names is already found among ancient writers in the form ???????, singular ????? instead of?????. The Celts were probably not the native inhabitants of the country, as most of the ancients assumed, but, probably, like other peoples of the Indo-European tribe, they came from the east (from Asia?). To the north of the river Sequana and Matrona lived the Belgians (also related to the Gauls), alongside and alternating with them on the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior and inferior) the Germans. The inhabitants of Georgia were curious, unreliable, and prone to resettlement ( Wed their forays into Italy). They fell apart into many independent peoples, which at the time when Caesar fought with them, had a mostly aristocratic rule. Having defeated the Gauls of Upper Italy, the Romans in 128 BC, called by the inhabitants of Massilia to help against the Sali, crossed the Alps and in 122 turned the southern part of Gaul into a province that was called Provincia (later Provincia Narbonensis, n. . Provence). Julius Caesar ( cm. division of the country Caes. b. g. 1, 1), beginning in 58, conquered most of the country, and then in 27 BC Augustus divided the whole of Georgia into four parts on the basis of the previous division: Gallia Narbonensis (former Provincia), the main city of Narbo (in 118 the first Roman colony outside Italy); G. Aquitania (between the Pyrenees, Atlantic Ocean, Loaro and Cévennes); G. Lugdunensis (extending north beyond the River Seine), the main city of Lugdunum Belgica. The coastal area of ​​the Atlantic Ocean, especially near the strait, was called Aremorica, not in relation to the peoples who lived there, but by its position near the sea (Celtic mor). During the reign of Constantine the Great or Diocletian, the land was divided into 14, and even later into 17 provinces:

a) Gallia Narbonensis:

1. Narbonensis 1, the main city of Narbo Martius (h. Narbonne);

2. Narbonensis II, capital city of Aquae Sextiae (n. Aix);

3. Alpes maritimae, the main city of Eburodunum (n.Embrun);

4. Viennsis, the main city of Vienna (Vienne);

5. Alpes Graiae et Penninae, capital city of Civitas Centronum (Centron);

b) G. Aquitania:

6. Novempopulana, capital city of Elusa (Eauze);

7. Aquitania I, capital city Civ. Biturigum or Avaricum (Bourges);

8. Aquitania II, capital city of Burdigala (Bordeaux);

c) G. Lugdunensis;

9. G. Lugd. I, the main city of Lugdunum (Lyon);

10. G. Lugd. II, the main city of Rotomagus (Rouen);

11. G. Lugd. III, the main city of Civ. Turonum (Tours);

12. G. Lugd. IV, the main city of Civ. Senonum or Agedincum (Sens);

d) Belgica;

13. Belgica I, capital city Civ. Trevirorum (Trier);

14. Belgica II, the main city of Durocortorum or Civ. Remorum (Reims),

15. Germania I (superior), the main city of Mogontiacum (Mainz);

16. Germ. II (inferior), main town of Colonia Agrippinensis (C? Ln),

17. Maxima Sequanorum, main town of Vesontio (Besan? On). About tribes and cities cm. separate articles. The endings often found in the names of cities have the following meaning: aber - estuary; bona - border; briga - castle; briva - bridge; dunum - hill; durum - castle; magus - field; nemetum - sanctuary; rigum - moat; ritum - ford. Starting from the 4th century. From R. X., the names of individual tribes were almost without exception transferred to their main cities, from which the present names of cities were partly formed. ( Strab. 4, 176 sl., 2) Gallia cisalpina and transpadana and cispadana, cm. Italia, Italy, 12.

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