Man as an individual and as an accentuated person People differ from each other not only in accentuated features. Even without revealing the features that distinguish the personality against the background of the average level, people are still dissimilar to each other. These are the features that

Knowledge of the basic foundations of psychology can play an important role in the life of any person. In order for us to be able to most productively fulfill our goals and effectively interact with the people around us, we need to have at least an idea of ​​what personality psychology is, how personality develops and what are the features of this process. It is important to know what constituent elements and personality types exist. By understanding these issues, we get the opportunity to make our life more productive, comfortable and harmonious.

The personal psychology lesson below is designed specifically to help you internalize these important fundamentals and learn as effectively as possible. Here you will get acquainted with how a person and the problem of personality is considered in psychology: you will learn its foundations and structure. Plus, get an insight into personality research and many other interesting topics.

What is personality?

In the modern world there is no unambiguous definition of the concept of "personality" and this is due to the complexity of the very phenomenon of personality. Any definition available at the moment deserves to be taken into account when drawing up the most objective and complete one.

If we talk about the most common definition, then we can say that:

Personality- this is a person who has a certain set of psychological properties on which his actions are based, which are important for society; internal difference of one person from the rest.

There are several other definitions:

• Personality it is a social subject and the totality of his personal and social roles, his preferences and habits, his knowledge and experience.
• Personality is a person who independently builds and controls his life and bears full responsibility for it.

Together with the concept of "personality" in psychology, concepts such as "individual" and "individuality" are used.

Individual- This is an individual person, considered as a unique combination of his innate and acquired qualities.

Individuality- it is a set of unique traits and characteristics that distinguish one individual from all others; the originality of the personality and psyche of a person.

In order for everyone who shows interest in the human personality as a psychological phenomenon to have the most objective idea about him, it is necessary to highlight the key elements that make up the personality, in other words, talk about its structure.

Personality structure

The structure of personality is the connection and interaction of its various components: abilities, volitional qualities, character, emotions, etc. These components are its properties and differences and are called "traits". There are quite a few of these features, and in order to structure them, there is a division into levels:

• The lowest level of personality these are the sexual properties of the psyche, age-related, innate.
• The second level of personality these are individual manifestations of thinking, memory, abilities, sensations, perception, which depend both on innate factors and on their development.
• The third level of personality it is an individual experience that contains the acquired knowledge, habits, abilities, and skills. This level is formed in the process of life and is of a social nature.
• The highest level of personality- this is its focus, which includes interests, desires, drives, inclinations, beliefs, views, ideals, worldviews, self-esteem, character traits. This level is the most socially conditioned and formed under the influence of upbringing, as well as more fully reflecting the ideology of the society in which the person is.

Why are these levels important and necessary to distinguish among themselves? At least in order to be able to objectively characterize any person (including yourself) as a person, to understand what level you are considering.

The difference between people is very multifaceted, because at each level there are differences of interests and beliefs, knowledge and experience, abilities and skills, character and temperament. It is for these reasons that it is quite difficult to understand another person, to avoid contradictions and even conflicts. In order to understand yourself and those around you, you need to have a certain baggage of psychological knowledge, and combine it with awareness and observation. And in this very specific issue, knowledge of the key personality traits and their differences plays an important role.

Key personality traits

In psychology, it is customary to understand personality traits as stable mental phenomena that have a significant impact on a person's activity and characterize him from the socio-psychological side. In other words, this is how a person manifests itself in his activities and in relationships with others. The structure of these phenomena includes abilities, temperament, character, will, emotions, motivation. Below we will consider each of them separately.

Capabilities

Understanding why different people who are in the same living conditions have different outcomes, we are often guided by the concept of "abilities", assuming that it is they that affect what a person is trying to achieve. We use the same term to find out why some people learn something faster than others, etc.

The concept " capabilities»Can be interpreted in different ways. First, it is a set of mental processes and states, often called the properties of the soul. Secondly, it is a high level of development of general and special skills, abilities and knowledge that ensure the effective performance of various functions by a person. And, thirdly, abilities are everything that cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, but with which one can explain their acquisition, use and consolidation.

A person has a huge number of different abilities, which can be divided into several categories.

Elementary and complex abilities

• Elementary (simplest) abilities- these are the abilities associated with the functions of the sense organs and the simplest movements (the ability to distinguish smells, sounds, colors). They are present in a person from birth and during life they can be improved.
• Complex abilities- these are abilities in various activities related to human culture. For example, musical (composing music), artistic (drawing skills), math (the ability to easily solve complex math problems). Such abilities are called socially conditioned, tk. they are not congenital.

General and special abilities

• General abilities- these are the abilities that all people have, but developed in all to varying degrees (general motor, mental). It is they who determine the successes and achievements in many types of activities (sports, training, teaching).
• Special Abilities- these are abilities that are not found in everyone and for which, in most cases, certain inclinations are required (artistic, visual, literary, acting, musical). Thanks to them, people achieve success in specific activities.

It should be noted that the presence of a person's special abilities can be harmoniously combined with the development of general ones, and vice versa.

Theoretical and practical

• Theoretical ability- these are the abilities that determine the tendency of the individual to abstract logical thinking, as well as the ability to clearly formulate and successfully perform theoretical tasks.
• Practical ability- these are abilities that are manifested in the ability to set and perform practical tasks associated with specific actions in certain life situations.

Educational and creative

• Learning ability- these are abilities that determine the success of training, assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.
• Creative skills- these are abilities that determine the ability of a person to create objects of spiritual and material culture, as well as influencing the production of new ideas, making discoveries, etc.

Communicative and subject-activity

• Communication skills- these are abilities that include knowledge, skills and abilities related to communication and interaction with people around, interpersonal assessment and perception, establishing contacts, making connections, finding a common language, affection for oneself and influencing people.
• Subject-activity abilities- these are abilities that determine the interaction of people with inanimate objects.

All types of abilities are complementary, and it is their combination that gives a person the opportunity to develop most fully and harmoniously. Abilities affect both each other and the success of a person in life, work and communication.

In addition to the fact that the concept of "ability" is used to characterize a person in psychology, terms such as "genius", "talent", "giftedness" are also used, indicating more subtle nuances of personality.

• Giftedness- this is the presence of a person from birth for a better development of abilities.
• Talent- these are abilities that are revealed to the fullest through the acquisition of skills and experience.
• Genius- this is an unusually high level of development of any abilities.

As we mentioned above, a person's life result is very often associated with his abilities and their application. And the results of the overwhelming majority of people, unfortunately, leave much to be desired. Many people start looking for a solution to their problems somewhere outside, when the right solution is always inside a person. And you should just look into yourself. If a person in his daily activities does not do what he has inclinations and predispositions for, then the effect of this will be, to put it mildly, unsatisfactory. As one of the options in order to make a difference, you can use the precise definition of your abilities.

If, for example, you have an innate ability to lead and manage people, and you work as a receiver of goods in a warehouse, then, of course, this occupation will not bring either moral, emotional or financial satisfaction, because you are doing something completely different from yours. business. In this situation, some kind of management position is more suitable for you. You can start at least as a middle-level manager. Inborn leadership abilities, when used and developed systematically, will take you to a completely different level. Take time in your schedule to identify your inclinations and abilities, study yourself, try to understand what you really want to do and what will bring you pleasure. Based on the results obtained, it will already be possible to draw a conclusion on the topic in which direction you need to move on.

To determine the abilities and inclinations, there are now a huge number of tests and methods. You can read more about abilities.

An aptitude test will appear here soon.

Along with abilities, as one of the main personality traits, temperament can be distinguished.

Temperament

Temperament they call a set of properties that characterize the dynamic characteristics of mental processes and states of a person (their occurrence, change, strength, speed, cessation), as well as his behavior.

The idea of ​​temperament goes back to the work of Hippocrates, an ancient Greek philosopher who lived in the 5th century. BC. It was he who defined the various types of temperaments that people still use today: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine.

Melancholic temperament- this type is characteristic of people with a gloomy mood, with a tense and complex inner life. Such people are distinguished by vulnerability, anxiety, restraint, and also by the fact that they attach great importance to everything that concerns them personally. With minor difficulties, melancholic people give up. They have little energy potential and tire quickly.

Choleric temperament- most of all typical for hot-tempered people. People with this type of temperament are not restrained, impatient, hot and impulsive. But they quickly cool down and calm down if they are met. Choleric people are characterized by persistence and stability of interests and aspirations.

Phlegmatic temperament are cold-blooded people who are more prone to being in a state of inactivity than in a state of active work. Slowly excitable, but cool down for a long time. Phlegmatic people are not resourceful, it is difficult for them to adapt to a new environment, to rebuild in a new way, to get rid of old habits. But at the same time they are efficient and energetic, patient, possess self-control and endurance.

Sanguine temperament such people are merry people, optimists, humorists and jokers. They are full of hopes, sociable, easily meet new people. Sanguine people are distinguished by a quick reaction to external stimuli: they can be easily cheered or plunged into anger. They actively take on new beginnings, they can work for a long time. They are disciplined, if necessary, they can control their reactions and quickly adapt to new conditions.

These are far from complete descriptions of types of temperament, but they contain the most characteristic features for them. Each of them is neither good nor bad in and of itself, unless they are linked to requirements and expectations. Any type of temperament can have both its drawbacks and its advantages. You can learn more about a person's temperament.

Having a good understanding of the influence of the type of temperament on the speed of occurrence of mental processes (perception, thinking, attention) and their intensity, on the pace and rhythm of activity, as well as on its direction, one can easily and effectively use this knowledge in everyday life.

To determine the type of temperament, it is best to use specialized tests compiled by specialists in the field of personality studies.

A temperament test will appear here soon.

Another fundamental property of a person's personality is his character.

Character

The character the methods of human interaction with the surrounding world and other people, acquired in certain social conditions, are called, which constitute the type of his life activity.

In the process of communication between people, character is manifested in the manner of behavior, ways of reacting to the actions and actions of others. Manners can be delicate and tactful, or rude and unceremonious. This is due to the difference in the characters of people. People with the strongest or, conversely, the weakest character always stand out from the rest. People with a strong character, as a rule, are distinguished by perseverance, perseverance, purposefulness. And weak-willed people are distinguished by weak-willedness, unpredictability, randomness of actions. The character includes many traits that modern specialists divide into three groups: communicative, business, strong-willed.

Communicative traits are manifested in a person's communication with others (isolation, sociability, responsiveness, anger, benevolence).

Business traits are manifested in daily work activities (accuracy, conscientiousness, hard work, responsibility, laziness).

Volitional traits are directly related to the will of a person (determination, perseverance, perseverance, lack of will, compliance).

There are also motivational and instrumental character traits.

Motivational traits - motivating a person to action, directing and supporting his activity.

Instrumental traits - give the behavior a certain style.

If you are able to form a clear idea of ​​the traits and characteristics of your character, this will allow you to understand the motivating force that guides your development and self-realization in life. This knowledge will allow you to determine which of your features are most developed, and which should be improved, as well as to understand through which of your features you interact more with the world and others. An in-depth understanding of yourself gives you a unique opportunity to see how and why you react to life situations and events, and what you need to cultivate in yourself so that your lifestyle becomes as productive and useful as possible and you can fully realize yourself. If you know the features of your character, its pros and cons, and begin to improve yourself, you will be able to respond in the best way in a given situation, you will know how to respond to harmful or beneficial influences, what to say to another person, responding to his actions and words ...

Soon there will be a test to determine character traits.

One of the most important personality traits that have the most serious impact on the process of human life and its result is will.

Will

Will- this is the property of a person to make conscious control of his psyche and actions.

Thanks to the will, a person is able to consciously control his own behavior and his mental states and processes. With the help of will, a person exerts a conscious influence on the world around him, introducing the necessary (in his opinion) changes into it.

The main sign of will is associated with the fact that, in most cases, it is associated with a person making reasonable decisions, overcoming obstacles and making efforts to implement the plan. A volitional decision is made by an individual in conditions of opposed to each other multidirectional needs, drives and motives that have approximately the same incentive force, due to which a person always needs to choose one of two / several.

Will always implies self-restraint: acting in one way or another to achieve certain goals and results, realizing certain needs, a person acting of his own free will always have to deprive himself of something else, which, perhaps, he sees as more attractive and desirable. Another sign of the participation of will in human behavior is the presence of a specific plan of action.

An important feature of volitional effort is the lack of emotional satisfaction, but the presence of moral satisfaction arising from the implementation of the plan (but not in the process of implementation). Very often volitional efforts are directed not at overcoming circumstances, but at “conquering” oneself, in spite of one's natural desires.

Mainly, will is what helps a person to overcome life's difficulties and obstacles on the way; something that helps to achieve new results and develop. As one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, Carlos Castaneda, said: "Will is what makes you win when your mind tells you that you are defeated." We can say that the stronger the willpower of a person, the stronger the person himself (this means, of course, not physical, but inner strength). The main practice for developing willpower is to train and harden it. You can start developing your willpower with quite simple things.

For example, make it a rule to notice those things, postponing the implementation of which devastates you, "sucks energy" and the implementation of which, on the contrary, invigorates, energizes and has a positive impact. These are the things that you are lazy to do, for example, cleaning up when you don't feel like doing at all, doing exercises in the morning, getting up half an hour earlier. An inner voice will tell you that it can be postponed or not necessary at all. Don't listen to him. This is the voice of your laziness. Do as you planned - after that you will notice that you feel more energetic and vigorous, stronger. Or another example: identify your weaknesses (it can be aimlessly spending time on the Internet, watching TV, lying on the couch, sweets, etc.). Take not the strongest of them and give it up for a week, two, a month. Promise yourself that after the appointed time, you will return to your habit again (if you want, of course). And then - the most important thing: take the symbol of this weakness and keep it with you at all times. But do not fall for the provocations of the "old self" and remember the promise. This is training your willpower. Over time, you will see that you have become stronger and can move on to giving up stronger weaknesses.

But nothing can be compared in terms of the power of influence on the human psyche, as another property of his personality - emotions.

Emotions

Emotions can be characterized as special individual experiences that have a pleasant or unpleasant mental coloration, and associated with the satisfaction of vital needs.

Among the main types of emotions are:

Mood - it reflects the general state of a person at a certain moment

The simplest emotions are experiences that are associated with the satisfaction of organic needs.

Affects are violent short-lived emotions that are especially apparent externally (gestures, facial expressions)

Feelings are a spectrum of experiences associated with certain objects.

Passion is a pronounced feeling that is not amenable (in most cases) to control

Stress is a combination of emotions and physical condition of the body.

Emotions, especially feelings, affects and passions, are an invariable part of a person's personality. All people (personalities) are very different emotionally. For example, in terms of emotional excitability, the duration of emotional experiences, the predominance of negative or positive emotions. But the main feature of the difference is the intensity of the experienced emotions and their direction.

Emotions have the characteristic trait of having a serious impact on a person's life. Under the influence of certain emotions at certain moments, a person can make decisions, say something, and perform actions. As a rule, emotions are short-lived. But what sometimes a person does under the influence of emotions does not always give good results. And since our lesson is devoted to how to improve our life, then we should speak precisely about the ways to have a beneficial effect on it.

It is important to learn to control your emotions and not succumb to them. First of all, you need to remember that an emotion, whatever it may be (positive or negative), is just an emotion, and it will soon pass. Therefore, if in any negative situation you feel that negative emotions begin to prevail in you, remember this and restrain them - this will allow you not to do or say something that you may regret later on. If, thanks to some outstanding positive events in your life, you experience a surge of joyful emotions, then also remember this, this practice will help you avoid unnecessary energy expenditures.

Surely, you are familiar with the situation when, some time after a moment of stormy joy or delight, you feel a kind of inner emptiness. Emotions are always an expenditure of personal energy. It is not for nothing that the ancient Jewish king Solomon had a ring on his finger with the inscription: "This too will pass." Always in moments of joy or sadness, he turned his ring and read this inscription to himself in order to remember the short duration of emotional experiences.

Knowledge of what emotions are and the ability to manage them are very important aspects in the development of an individual and life in general. Learn to manage your emotions and you will know yourself to the fullest. Such things as self-observation and self-control, as well as various spiritual practices (meditation, yoga, etc.) allow you to master this skill. You can find information about them on the Internet. And you can learn more about what emotions are in our acting training.

But, despite the importance of all the personality traits discussed above, perhaps the leading role is occupied by another of its properties - motivation, since it affects the desire to learn more about oneself and immerse oneself in the psychology of the personality, on interest in something new, hitherto unknown. even that you are reading this lesson.

Motivation

In general, there are two complementary sides in human behavior - incentive and regulatory. The incentive side ensures the activation of behavior and its direction, and the regulatory side is responsible for how the behavior develops in specific conditions.

Motivation is closely related to such phenomena as motives, intentions, motives, needs, etc. In the narrowest sense, motivation can be defined as a set of reasons that explain human behavior. This concept is based on the term "motive".

Motive is any internal physiological or psychological urge that is responsible for the activity and purposefulness of behavior. Motives are conscious and unconscious, imaginary and really acting, meaning-forming and motivating.

The following phenomena have an effect on a person's motivation:

Need is the state of a person's need for anything necessary for normal existence, as well as mental and physical development.

A stimulus is any internal or external factor, coupled with a motive, that controls behavior and directs it towards achieving a certain goal.

Intention is a deliberate and deliberate decision that is consistent with a desire to do something.

Motivation is an incompletely conscious and indefinite (possibly) human desire for something.

It is motivation that is the "fuel" of a person. Just as a car needs gasoline so that it can go further, so a person needs motivation in order to strive for something, to develop, to reach new heights. For example, you wanted to learn more about human psychology and personality traits, and this was the motivation to turn to this lesson. But what is great motivation for one, it may be absolute zero for another.

The knowledge of motivation, first of all, can be successfully used for yourself: think about what you want to achieve in life, make a list of your life goals. Not just what you would like to have, but what makes your heart beat faster and makes you emotionally aroused. Imagine what you want as if you already have it. If you feel that it "turns you on", then this is your motivation for action. We all have periods of ups and downs in activity. And it is in moments of recession that you need to remember why you should move forward. Set a global goal, divide its achievement into intermediate stages and start acting. Only the person who knows where he is going and takes steps towards this will come to his goal.

Also, knowledge about motivation can be used in communicating with people.

The situation when you ask a person to fulfill some request (for friendship, for work, etc.) can serve as an excellent example. Naturally, in return for a service, a person wants to get something for himself (sadly, but most of people are characterized by selfish interest, even if it manifests itself in someone to a greater extent, and to someone to a lesser extent). Determine what a person needs and this will be a kind of hook that can hook him, his motivation. Show the person their benefits. If he sees that by meeting you halfway, he will be able to satisfy some essential need for him, then this will be almost a 100% guarantee that your interaction will be successful and effective.

In addition to the above material, it is worth mentioning the process of personality development. After all, everything that we have considered before is closely interconnected with this process, depends on it and at the same time influences it. The topic of personality development is very peculiar and voluminous to describe it as a small part of one lesson, but it is impossible not to mention it. And therefore we will only touch on it in general terms.

Personal development

Personal development is part of the overall development of a person. It is one of the main topics of practical psychology, but it is understood far from unambiguously. Scientists use the phrase "personal development" to refer to at least four different topics.

1. What are the mechanisms and dynamics of personality development (the process itself is being investigated)
2. What does the personality achieve in the process of its development (the results are being investigated)
3. By what methods and means parents and society can form a personality out of a child (the actions of "educators" are being investigated)
4. How a person can develop himself as a person (the actions of the person himself are investigated)

The topic of personality development has always attracted many researchers and was considered from different angles. For some researchers, the greatest interest in personality development is the influence of socio-cultural characteristics, the ways of this influence and the model of upbringing. For others, the subject of close study is a person's independent development of himself as a person.

Personality development can be either a natural process that does not require outside participation, or a deliberate, purposeful one. And the results will differ materially.

Besides the fact that a person is able to develop himself, he can develop others. For practical psychology, the most characteristic is assistance in the development of personality, the development of new methods and innovations in this matter, various trainings, seminars and educational programs.

Basic theories of personality research

The main directions in personality research can be distinguished starting from about the middle of the 20th century. Below we will consider some of them, and for the most popular (Freud, Jung) we will give examples.

This is a psychodynamic approach to the study of personality. Personality development was considered by Freud in a psychosexual sense, and he proposed a three-component personality structure:

• Id - "it" in it contains everything inherited and laid down in the human constitution. Each individual has basic instincts: life, death and sex, the most important of which is the third.
• Ego - "I" is a part of the mental apparatus that is in contact with the surrounding reality. The main task at this level is self-preservation and protection.
• The super ego - "over me" is the so-called judge of the activities and thoughts of the ego. Three functions are performed here: conscience, self-observation and the formation of ideals.

Freud's theory is perhaps the most popular of all theories in psychology. It is widely known because it reveals the deep characteristics and stimuli of human behavior, in particular the strong influence of sexual attraction on a person. The basic proposition of psychoanalysis is that human behavior, experience and cognition are largely determined by internal and irrational drives, and these drives are predominantly unconscious.

One of the methods of Freud's psychological theory, when studied in detail, says that you need to learn to use your excess energy and sublimate it, i.e. redirect to achieve specific goals. For example, if you notice that your child is overly active, then this activity can be directed in the right direction - send the child to the sports section. As another example of sublimation, you can cite the following situation: you were standing in the line of the tax office and faced with an arrogant, rude and negative person. In the process, he yelled at you, insulted you, thereby causing a storm of negative emotions - an excess of energy that needs to be thrown out somewhere. To do this, you can go to the gym or the pool. You yourself will not notice how all the anger will go away, and you will again be in a cheerful mood. This, of course, is a completely trivial example of sublimation, but the essence of the method can be captured in it.

To learn more about the sublimation method, visit this page.

Knowledge about Freud's theory can be used in another aspect - the interpretation of dreams. According to Freud, a dream is a reflection of something that is in a person's soul, which he himself may not even guess about. Think about what reasons could lead to the fact that you had this or that dream. What comes to your mind first as an answer and will make the most sense. And already, proceeding from this, you should interpret your dream as a reaction of your unconscious to external circumstances. You can familiarize yourself with the work of Sigmund Freud "The Interpretation of Dreams".

Apply Freud's knowledge in your personal life: in the study of your relationship with your loved one, you can put into practice the concepts of "transfer" and "counter-transfer". Transfer is the transfer of feelings and affections of two people to each other. Counter-transfer is the reverse process. If you look into this topic in more detail, you can find out why certain problems arise in the relationship, which makes it possible to resolve them as soon as possible. It has been written in great detail about this.

Read more about Sigmund Freud's theory on Wikipedia.

Jung introduced the concept of "I" as the individual's desire for unity and integrity. And in the classification of personality types he put the focus of a person on himself and the object - he divided people into extroverts and introverts. In Jung's analytical psychology, personality is described as the result of the interaction of striving for the future and individually innate predisposition. Also, particular importance is attached to the movement of the personality along the path of self-realization through balancing and integrating various elements of the personality.

Jung believed that every person is born with a set of certain personal characteristics and that the external environment does not allow a person to become a person, but reveals the characteristics already inherent in it. He also identified several levels of the unconscious: individual, family, group, national, racial and collective.

According to Jung, there is a certain system of the psyche that a person inherits at birth. It has evolved for hundreds of millennia and makes people experience and implement all life experience in a very specific way. And this concreteness is expressed in what Jung called archetypes that affect the thoughts, feelings and actions of people.

Jung's typology can be applied in practice to determine one's own type of attitude or the types of attitudes of others. If, for example, you notice indecision, isolation, sharpness of reactions, a predominant state of protection from the outside, distrustfulness behind yourself / others, this indicates that your attitude / attitude of others is of the introverted type. If you / others are open, easily make contact, are gullible, engage in unfamiliar situations, neglect caution, etc., then the attitude is of the extroverted type. Knowing your type of attitude (according to Jung) makes it possible to better understand yourself and others, the motives of actions and reactions, and this, in turn, will allow you to increase your efficiency in life and build relationships with people in the most productive way.

Jung's analytical method can also be used to analyze your own behavior and the behavior of others. Based on the classification of the conscious and the unconscious, you can learn to identify the motives that guide you and the people around you in your behavior.

Another example: if you notice that, upon reaching a certain age, your child begins to behave hostilely towards you and tries to abstract from people and the world around him, then you can say with a high degree of confidence that the process of individuation has begun - the formation of an individuality. This usually occurs during adolescence. According to Jung, there is a second part of the formation of individuality - when a person "returns" to the world and becomes an integral part of it, not trying to separate himself from the world. The observation method is perfect for detecting such processes.

Wikipedia.

William James personality theory

It divides personality analysis into 3 parts:

• The constituent elements of personality (which are grouped into three levels)
• Feelings and emotions evoked by building blocks (self-esteem)
• Actions caused by the constituent elements (self-preservation and self-care).

Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Individual psychology of Alfred Adler

Adler introduced the concept of "lifestyle", it manifests itself in the attitudes and behavior of a particular person and is formed under the influence of society. According to Adler, the structure of the personality is one, and the main thing in its development is the striving for superiority. Adler distinguished 4 types of attitudes that accompany a lifestyle:

• Control type
• Receive type
• Avoidance type
• Socially useful type

He also proposed a theory whose purpose is to help people understand themselves and those around them. Adler's ideas were the forerunners of phenomenological and humanistic psychology.

Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Psychosynthesis Roberto Assagioli

Assagioli identified 8 zones (substructures) in the basic structure of the mental:

1. Lower unconscious
2. Secondary unconscious
3. Higher unconscious
4. The field of consciousness
5. Personal "I"
6. Higher self
7. Collective unconscious
8. Subpersonality (identity)

The meaning of mental development, according to Assagioli, was to increase the unity of the psyche, i.e. in the synthesis of everything in man: body, psyche, conscious and unconscious.

Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Physiological (biological) approach (type theory)

This approach focused on body composition and structure. There are two main works in this direction:

Ernst Kretschmer's typology

According to her, people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics. Kretschmer identified 4 constitutional types: leptosomatics, picnic, athletic, dysplastic. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

The work of William Herbert Sheldon

Sheldon suggested that the shape of the body affects the personality and reflects its characteristics. He distinguished 3 classes of physique: endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Eduard Spranger's personality concept

Spranger described 6 psychological types of a person, depending on the forms of knowledge of the world: Theoretical person, Economic person, Aesthetic person, Social person, Political person, Religious person. In accordance with the spiritual values ​​of a person, the individuality of his personality is determined. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

The dispositional direction of Gordon Allport

Allport put forward 2 general ideas: the theory of traits and the uniqueness of each person. According to Allport, each personality is unique and its uniqueness can be understood by identifying specific personality traits. This scientist introduced the concept of "proprium" that is recognized as its own in the inner world and is a distinctive feature. Proprium directs human life in a positive, creative, growth-seeking and developing direction in accordance with human nature. Identity here acts as an internal constancy. Allport also emphasized the indivisibility and integrity of the entire personality structure. Read more.

Intrapsychological approach. Kurt Lewin's theory

Levin suggested that the driving forces of personality development are within the personality itself. The subject of his research was the need and motives of human behavior. He tried to approach the study of personality as a whole and advocated Gestalt psychology. Levin proposed his own approach to understanding personality: in it, the source of the driving forces of human behavior is in the interaction of a person and a situation and is determined by his attitude towards it. This theory is called dynamic or typological. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Phenomenological and humanistic theories

The main causal means of personality here are belief in a positive beginning in every person, his subjective experiences and the desire to realize his potential. The main proponents of these theories were:

Abraham Harold Maslow: his key idea was the human need for self-actualization.

The existentialist direction of Viktor Frankl

Frankl was convinced that the key moments in the development of personality are freedom, responsibility and the meaning of life. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Each of the theories existing today has its own uniqueness, significance and value. And each of the researchers identified and clarified the most important aspects of a person's personality and each of them is right in its own field.

For the most complete acquaintance with the issues and theories of personality psychology, you can use the following books and textbooks.

• Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Personal development in the process of life // Psychology of personality formation and development. Moscow: Nauka, 1981.
• Abulkhanova K.A., Berezina T.N. Personality time and life time. SPb .: Aleteya, 2001.
• Ananiev B.G. Man as a subject of knowledge // Selected psychological works. In 2 volumes. M., 1980.
• Wittels F.Z. Freud. His personality, teaching and school. L., 1991.
• Gippenreiter Yu.B. An introduction to general psychology. M., 1996.
• Enikeev M.I. Foundations of General and Legal Psychology. - M., 1997.
• Crane W. Secrets of personality formation. SPb .: Prime-Evroznak, 2002.
• Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975.
• Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M., 1980.
• Maslow A. Self-actualization // Personality Psychology. Texts. Moscow: Moscow State University, 1982.
• R.S. Nemov General psychology. ed. Peter, 2007.
• Pervin L., John O. Psychology of personality. Theory and research. M., 2000.
• Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology. - M., 2000.
• Rusalov V.M. Biological bases of individual psychological differences. M., 1979.
• Rusalov V.M. Natural prerequisites and individual psychophysiological personality traits // Personality psychology in the works of Russian psychologists. SPb., Peter, 2000.
• Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. 2nd ed. M., 1946.
• Rubinstein S.L. Being and consciousness. M., 1957.
• Rubinstein S.L. Man and the world. Moscow: Nauka, 1997.
• Rubinstein S.L. Principles and ways of development of psychology. Moscow, Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1959.
• Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. M., 1946.
• Sokolova E.E. Thirteen dialogues about psychology. M .: Smysl, 1995.
• Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology. - Rostov-on-Don, 2004.
• Tome H. Kehele H. Modern psychoanalysis. In 2 volumes. Moscow: Progress, 1996.
• Tyson F., Tyson R. Psychoanalytic theories of development. Yekaterinburg: Business Book, 1998.
• Freud Z. Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Lectures. Moscow: Nauka, 1989.
• Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. SPb., Peter, 1997.
• Hall K., Lindsay G. Theories of personality. M., 1997.
• Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. SPb .: Peter, 1997.
• Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fress, J. Piaget. Issue 5.M .: Progress, 1975.
• Jung K. Soul and myth. Six archetypes. M .; Kiev: ZAO Perfection "Port-Royal", 1997.
• Jung K. Psychology of the unconscious. M .: Canon, 1994.
• Jung K. Tavistock Lectures. M., 1998.
• Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology in the XX century. M., 1974.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge of the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. In each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you have selected one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to the next question. The points you receive are influenced by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are mixed.

Personality Congenital features of thinking, sensations and behavior that determine the uniqueness of the individual, his lifestyle and the nature of adaptation and are the result of constitutional factors of development and social status.

A Brief Explanatory Psychological and Psychiatric Dictionary... Ed. igisheva. 2008.

Personality

2) the systemic quality of the individual determined by the inclusion in social connections, which is formed in joint activities and communication. In "hormonal psychology" (W. McDougall), in psychoanalysis (Z. Freud, A. Adler) L. was interpreted as an ensemble of irrational unconscious drives. actually removed the problem of L., which had no place in the mechanistic scheme "S - R" ("-"). The concepts of K. Levin, A. Maslow, G. Allport, K. Rogers, which are very productive in terms of specific methodological solutions, reveal a certain limitation, which manifests itself in physicalism, the transfer of the laws of mechanics to the analysis of the manifestations of L. (K. Levin), in indeterminism in “ humanistic psychology"And existentialism. The successes of Western empirical psychology in the field of psychotherapy of L., training of communication, etc. are noticeable. In Russian psychology of man, L. is characterized by the system of relations conditioned by life in society, the subject of which he is. In the process of interacting with the world, actively acting L. acts as a whole in which cognition of the environment is carried out in unity with experience. L. is considered in the unity (but not identity) of the sensible essence of its bearer - the individual and the conditions of the social environment (B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev). The natural properties and characteristics of the individual appear in L. as socially conditioned elements of it. So, for example, cerebral pathology is biologically determined, but the character traits generated by it become the characteristics of L. due to social determination. L. is a mediating link, through a cut external influence is associated with its effect in the psyche of the individual (S. L. Rubinstein). The emergence of L. as a systemic quality is due to the fact that the individual, in joint activity with other individuals, changes the world and through this change transforms himself, becoming L. (A. N. Leont'ev). L. is characterized by activity, that is, the desire of the subject to go beyond its own limits (see), to expand the scope of its activities, to act beyond the boundaries of the requirements of the situation and role prescriptions (, risk, etc.). L. is characterized by focus- a stable dominant system of motives - interests, beliefs, ideals, tastes, etc., in which a person manifests itself; deep semantic structures ("dynamic semantic systems", according to L.S. principle of activity mediation), the degree of awareness of one's relationship to reality: attitudes (according to V.N. Myasishchev), attitudes (according to D.N. Uznadze, A.S. Prangishvili, Sh.A. Nadirashvili), dispositions (according to V. Ya. and so on. Developed L. has a developed self-awareness, which does not exclude unconscious mental regulation of some important aspects of L. himself, constructed by the individual in the processes of activity and communication, ensuring the unity and identity of his L. and revealing itself in self-assessments, in a sense of self-esteem, the level of claims, etc. The image of "I" is how the individual sees himself in the present, in future, what he would like to be, if he could, etc. Correlation of the image of "I" with the real circumstances of the individual's life allows L. to change his behavior and implement the goals of self-education. An appeal to L.'s self-esteem and self-respect is an important factor in directing influence on L. in the process of upbringing. L. as a subject of interpersonal relations reveals itself in three representations that form a unity (V.A.Petrovsky).

1) L. as a relatively stable set of its intraindividual qualities: symptom complexes of mental properties that form it, motives, directions of L. (L. I. Bozhovich); the structure of the character of L., features of temperament, (the works of B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, V. S. Merlin, etc.);

2) L. as the inclusion of the individual in the space of interindividual connections, where the relationships and interactions that arise in the group can be interpreted as carriers of L. of their participants. This overcomes, for example, a false alternative in understanding interpersonal relationships either as group phenomena or as phenomena of L. - the personal acts as a group, the group - as personal (A. V. Petrovsky);

3) L. as the “ideal representation” of the individual in the life of other people, including beyond their actual interaction, as a result of the semantic transformations of the intellectual and affective-need spheres of other people actively carried out by a person (V. A. Petrovsky).

An individual in his development experiences a socially determined "need to be L.", that is, to believe himself in the life of other people, continuing his existence in them, and discovers the "ability to be L.", realized in socially significant activities. The presence and characteristics of the "ability to be L." can be detected using the method of reflected subjectivity (see). L.'s development is carried out in the conditions of socialization of the individual and his upbringing (see).

A Brief Psychological Dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: "PHOENIX". L.A. Karpenko, A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .

Personality

The phenomenon of social development, a concrete living person with consciousness and self-awareness. Personality structure is an integral systemic formation, a set of socially significant mental properties, relationships and actions of an individual that have developed in the process of ontogenesis and determine his behavior as the behavior of a conscious subject of activity and communication. Personality is a self-regulating dynamic functional system of continuously interacting properties, relationships and actions that develop in the process of human ontogenesis. The core formation of the personality is self-esteem, which is based on the assessments of the individual by other people and his assessment of these others. In a broad, traditional sense, it is a personality; it is an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. The structure of the personality includes all the psychological characteristics of a person, and all the morphophysiological characteristics of his body - up to the characteristics of metabolism. The popularity and persistence of such an expanded understanding in literature is apparently due to its similarity with the everyday meaning of the word. In a narrow sense - the systemic quality of the individual determined by his involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activity and communication.

According to A.N. Leontiev, personality is a qualitatively new formation. It is shaped by living in society. Therefore, only a person can be a person, and then only after reaching a certain age. In the course of activity, a person enters into relationships with other people - into social relationships, and these relationships become personality-forming. From the side of the person himself, his formation and life as a person appear primarily as development, transformation, subordination and re-subordination of his motives. This representation is rather complicated and requires explanation. It does not coincide with the traditional interpretation - in a broad sense. The narrowed concept allows us to isolate a very important aspect of human existence, associated with the social nature of his life. A person as a social being acquires new qualities, which are absent if we consider him as an isolated, non-social being. And each person from a certain time begins to make a certain contribution to the life of society and individuals. That is why, next to the concepts of personality and personal, the concept of socially significant appears. Although this significant may be socially unacceptable: a crime is as much a personal act as a heroic deed. For the psychological concretization of the concept of personality, it is necessary to answer at least the questions about what the new formation called personality consists of, how the formation of personality occurs, as it appears from the position of the subject himself, the growth and functioning of his personality. The criteria for a formed personality are as follows:

1 ) the presence of hierarchy in motives in a certain sense - as the ability to overcome one's own immediate impulses for the sake of something else - the ability to behave mediated. In this case, it is assumed that the motives, thanks to which the immediate impulses are overcome, are social in origin and meaning (simply mediated behavior can be based on a spontaneously formed hierarchy of motives, and even "spontaneous morality": the subject may not be aware of what exactly makes him act in a certain way "but to act quite morally);

2 ) the ability to consciously guide their own behavior; this leadership is conducted on the basis of conscious motives, goals and principles (in contrast to the first criterion, it is precisely the conscious subordination of motives that is assumed here - the conscious mediation of behavior, which presupposes the presence of self-awareness as a special instance of the personality). In didactic terms, all the properties, relationships and actions of a person can be conditionally combined into four closely related functional substructures, each of which is a complex formation that plays a certain role in life:

1 ) regulation system;

2 ) stimulation system;

3 ) stabilization system;

4 ) display system.

In the course of social development of a person, the systems of regulation and stimulation constantly interact, and on their basis there are more and more complex mental properties, relationships and actions that direct the person to solving life problems. The unity of the personality along the entire path of life is ensured by the memory-continuity of goals, actions, relationships, claims, beliefs, ideals, etc. Western psychology considers a person as a "completely mental being." In mental psychology and in psychoanalysis, personality was interpreted as an ensemble of irrational unconscious drives. The concepts of K. Levin, A. Maslow, G. Allport, K. Rogers, which are very productive in terms of specific methodological solutions, also reveal a certain limitation. But in the field of personality psychotherapy, communication training and other things, the successes of Western empirical psychology are very noticeable. In Russian psychology, the personality is considered in unity (but not identity) and the sensual essence of its bearer - the individual and the conditions of the social environment. The natural properties and characteristics of the individual appear in the personality as its socially conditioned elements. Personality is a mediating link through which external influence is associated with its effect in the psyche of an individual. The emergence of a personality “in the hell of a systemic quality is due to the fact that an individual, in a joint activity with other individuals, changes the world and, through this change, transforms himself, becoming a personality. Personality is characterized by:

1 ) activity - the desire of the subject to go beyond his own limits, to expand the scope of activity, to act outside the boundaries of the requirements of the situation and role prescriptions;

2 ) orientation - a stable dominant system of motives - interests, beliefs, ideals, tastes and other things, in which human needs manifest themselves;

3 ) deep semantic structures (dynamic semantic systems, according to L. S. Vygotsky), which condition her consciousness and; they are relatively resistant to verbal influences and are transformed in the activities of joint groups and collectives (the principle of activity mediation);

4 ) the degree of awareness of one's relationship to reality: attitudes, attitudes, dispositions, etc.

A developed personality has a developed self-awareness, which does not exclude an unconscious mental regulation of some important aspects of its activity. Subjectively for the individual, the personality acts as his I, as a system of ideas about himself, constructed by the individual in the processes of activity and communication, which ensures the unity and identity of his personality and reveals himself in self-assessments, in a sense of self-respect, the level of claims, etc. how the individual sees himself in the present, in the future, what he would like to be, if he could, etc. Correlation of the self image with the real circumstances of the individual's life allows the personality to change behavior and realize the goals of self-education. An appeal to the self-esteem and self-esteem of a person is an important factor in the directional influence on a person during upbringing. Personality as a subject of interpersonal relationships reveals itself in three representations that form a unity:

1 ) personality as a relatively stable set of its intraindividual qualities: symptom complexes of mental properties that form its individuality, motives, personality orientation; structure of personality, characteristics of temperament, ability;

2 ) personality as the inclusion of an individual in the space of interindividual connections, where relationships and interactions that arise in a group can be interpreted as carriers of the personalities of their participants; in this way, for example, a false alternative in understanding interpersonal relationships is overcome, either as group phenomena or as personality phenomena: the personal acts as a group, the group - as a personal;

3 ) personality as "ideal representation" of the individual in the life of other people, including outside of their existing interaction; as a result of the semantic transformations of the spheres of intellectual and affective-need of other personalities actively realized by a person. An individual in his development experiences a socially determined need to be a person - to believe himself in the life of other people, continuing his existence in them, and discovers the ability to be a person, realized in socially significant activities. The presence and characteristics of the ability to be a person can be identified using the method of reflected subjectivity. The development of personality occurs in the conditions of socialization of the individual and his upbringing.

Dictionary of the Practical Psychologist. - M .: AST, Harvest... S. Yu. Golovin. 1998.

Personality Etymology.

Comes from Russian. mask (the mask corresponds to the term persona - originally a mask, or, performed by an actor of the ancient Greek theater).

A relatively stable system of individual behavior, built primarily on the basis of involvement in the social context.

Already in 1734 H. Wolf gave a definition of personality (Personlichkeit) as follows: "That which retains memories of itself and perceives itself as the same both before and now." This tradition of understanding personality was continued by W. James, who interpreted personality as the sum of everything that a person can call his own. In these definitions, the concept of personality becomes identical with the concept of self-awareness, therefore, the definition of personality through social relationships is more justified. With this approach, the personality appears as a system of the individual's social behavior.

The core formation of the personality is self-esteem, which is based on the assessments of the individual by other people and his assessment of these others. In this case, particular importance is attached to the identification of the person. Research.

The personality model developed in depth psychology, primarily in psychoanalysis (A. Adler, G. Sulliven, E. Fromm, K. Horney), is focused on explaining intrapsychological processes when referring mainly to the concepts of the structure and dynamics of "internal conflict".

On the contrary, the personality model developed in behaviorism is based on externally observable behavior, actions and interactions with other people in an actual situation (,). In modern behaviorism, personality is understood as a system of generated forms of behavior that are formed on the basis of situationally specific behavior (Rotter's theory of social learning). Within the framework of humanistic psychology, a person is considered primarily as a responsible decision-maker (, the theory of a self-actualizing personality). In Marxist psychology, personality is defined as a product of the historical development of the individual, primarily within the framework of joint labor activity (A. Wallon, I. Meyerson, J. Politzer, S. L. Rubinstein, A. N. Leontiev). In particular, Leontyev considers personality as created by social relations, into which the subject enters within the framework of his activity. In this case, individual activities of the subject, represented primarily by their motives, enter among themselves into a hierarchy of relations, forming the so-called hierarchy of motives. In the concept of A.V. Petrovsky, the type of personality development is determined through the type of group in which it is included and in which it is integrated; personal activity itself is a desire to go beyond the usual and to act outside the boundaries of the requirements of the situation or roles. Structure.

Rubinstein (1946) identified the following components of personality: 1. Direction (attitudes, interests,). 2. Abilities. 3. Temperament.

In the classification of personality traits by VS Merlin (1967), based on the definition of domination either of a natural or social principle, the following levels are presented: 1. Properties of an individual (and individual characteristics of mental processes). 2. Properties of individuality (motives, relationships,). In modern studies of personality structure, along with testing experimental hypotheses, which determine the role of specific factors affecting personality variables, a large role is assigned to factor-analytical strategies (, model of the big five). Diagnostics. Literature.

Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood. M., 1968;

Sav L. Marxism and the theory of personality. M., 1972; Zeigarnik B.V. Personality theory in foreign psychology. M., 1972 Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. L.M., 1977; Psychology of Personality. Texts. M., 1982; Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activity. Team. M., 1982; V.V. Stolin Self-awareness of the individual. M., 1983; A.G. Asmolov Personality as a subject of psychological research. M., 1984; Huell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. SPb., 1997

Psychological Dictionary... THEM. Kondakov. 2000.

PERSONALITY

(eng. personality; from lat. persona - actor mask; role, position; face, personality). In the social sciences, L. is regarded as a special quality of a person acquired by him in the sociocultural environment in the process of joint activities and communication... In humanistic philosophical and psychological concepts, L. is a person as a value for the sake of which the development of society is carried out. AND.Kant). With all the variety of approaches to understanding L., a trace is traditionally distinguished. aspects of this problem: 1) the versatility of the phenomenology of L., reflecting the objectively existing diversity of human manifestations in the evolution of nature, the history of society and its own life; 2) the interdisciplinary status of the L. problem, which is in the field of the study of social and natural sciences; 3) the dependence of the understanding of L. on the image of a person who explicitly or latently exists in culture and science at a certain stage of their development; 4) the discrepancy between the manifestations of the individual, L. and individuality investigated within the framework of relatively independent of each other biogenetic,sociogenetic and personogenetic directions of modern human knowledge; 5) the cultivation of a research attitude that orientates a specialist towards understanding the development of L. in nature and society, and a practical attitude aimed at the formation or correction of L. in accordance with the goals set by society or set by a specific person who has applied to a specialist.

Representatives of different trends sociogenetic orientation study processes socialization person, mastering social norms and roles, acquisition of social attitudes (see. ) and value orientations, the formation of the social and national character of a person as a typical member of a particular community. Socialization problems, or, in a broad sense, social adaptations man, developed by Mr. about. in sociology and social psychology, ethnopsychology, history of psychology. (See also Basic structure of personality, , .)

In the spotlight personogenetic orientation there are problems of activity, self-awareness and creativity L., the formation of the human self, the struggle motives, educating individual character and abilities, self-realization and personal choice, constant search meaning life. L. is engaged in the study of all these manifestations. L .; different aspects of these problems are covered in psychoanalysis,individual psychology,analytical and humanistic psychology.

In the isolation of biogenetic, sociogenetic, and personogenetic directions, a metaphysical scheme for the determination of L. development under the influence of two factors is manifested: the environment and heredity(cm. ). Within the framework of the cultural-historical system-activity approach, a fundamentally different scheme of determination of the development of L. is being developed. In this scheme, the properties of a person as an individual are considered as "impersonal" prerequisites for the development of L., which in the course of life can receive personal development.

The sociocultural environment is a source that nourishes the development of L., and not a "factor" that directly determines ... As a condition for the implementation of human activities, it carries those social norms, values, roles, ceremonies, tools, systems signs faced by the individual. The true foundations and driving force of L.'s development are joint activities and communication, through which L.'s movement in the world of people is carried out, its introduction to culture... The relationship between the individual as a product anthropogenesis, a person who has mastered the social and historical experience, and an individual who transforms the world, m. b. conveyed by the formula: “Individuals are born. They become a person. Individuality is upheld. "

Within the framework of the system-activity approach, L. is viewed as a relatively stable set of mental properties, as a result of the inclusion of the individual in the space of interindividual connections. An individual in his development experiences a socially conditioned need to be L. and discovers the ability to become L., realized in socially significant activities. This determines the development of a person as L.

The abilities and functions that form in the course of development reproduce in L. the historically formed human qualities. The mastery of reality in a child is carried out in his activity with the mediation of adults. The child's activity is always mediated by adults, directed by them (in accordance with their ideas about proper upbringing and pedagogical skills). Relying on what the child already possesses, adults organize his activities to master new aspects of reality and new forms of behavior (see. ).

L. development is carried out in activity (see. ) controlled by a system of motives. The activity-mediated type of relationship that develops in a person with the most referential group (or person) is a determining factor in development (see. ).

In general, the development of L. m. presented as a process and result of a person's entry into a new socio-cultural environment. If an individual enters into a relatively stable social community, under favorable circumstances, he goes through 3 phases of his formation in it as L. 1st phase - - presupposes the assimilation of existing values ​​and norms and the mastery of the corresponding means and forms of activity, and thus, to some extent, assimilation individual to other members of this community. 2nd phase - - is generated by the sharpening contradictions between the need to "be like everyone else" and L.'s desire for maximum personalization. 3rd phase - - is determined by the contradiction between the desire of the individual to be ideally represented by his characteristics and differences in the community and the need of the community to accept, approve and cultivate only those features that contribute to its development and thereby the development of himself as L. If the contradiction is not eliminated, disintegration sets in and, as a result, either L.'s isolation, or its displacement from the community, or degradation with a return to earlier stages of its development.

When an individual fails to overcome the difficulties of the adaptation period, he has qualities conformity, dependence, shyness, insecurity. If in the 2nd phase of development an individual, presenting a reference for him group personal properties that characterize his individuality do not meet mutual understanding, then this can contribute to the formation negativism, aggressiveness, suspicion, deceit... Upon successful completion of the integration phase in a highly developed group, the individual develops humanity, , justice, self-exactingness, etc., etc. Due to the fact that the situation of adaptation, individualization, integration with the sequential or parallel entry of an individual into various groups is repeatedly reproduced, the corresponding personal neoformations are consolidated, a stable structure of L.

A particularly significant period in the age development of L. - () and early when developing L. begins to distinguish itself as an object of self-knowledge and self-education... Initially assessing others, L. uses the experience of such assessments, developing self-esteem, which becomes the basis of self-education. But the need for self-knowledge (first of all in the awareness of one's moral and psychological qualities) cannot be used. identified with leaving the world of inner experiences. Height self-awareness associated with the formation of such qualities of L., as and moral , contributes to the emergence of persistent beliefs and ideals. The need for self-awareness and self-education is generated, first of all, by the fact that a person must realize his capabilities and needs in the face of future changes in his life, in his social status. If there is a significant discrepancy between the level of L.'s needs and her capabilities, acute affective experiences arise (see. Affects).

In the development of self-awareness in adolescence, the judgments of other people play a significant role, and above all, the assessment by parents, teachers, and peers. This makes serious demands on the pedagogical tact of parents and teachers, requires individual approach to every developing L.

Conducted in the Russian Federation since the mid-1980s. work to renew the education system presupposes the development of education for children, adolescents, and young men, and the democratization and humanization of the educational process in all types of educational institutions. Thus, there is a change in the goal of education and learning, which is not the aggregate knowledge,skills and skills, and the free development of L. man. Knowledge, skills and abilities retain their extremely important value, but not as a goal, but as a means to an end. Under these conditions, the task of forming the basic culture of Latvia comes to the fore, which would make it possible to eliminate the contradictions between technical and humanitarian culture in the structure of Latvia, overcome the alienation of man from politics, and ensure his active inclusion in the new socio-economic conditions of society. The implementation of these tasks presupposes the formation of a culture of self-determination of L., an understanding of the intrinsic value of human life, its individuality and uniqueness. (A.G. Asmolov, A.V. Petrovsky.)

Adding ed .: The almost generally accepted translation of the word L. as personality(and vice versa) is not entirely adequate. Personality - it is rather ... In Peter's times, a doll was called a person. L. is selfhood,selfness or self, which is close to Rus. the word "self". A more accurate equivalent to the word "L." in eng. lang. does not exist. The inaccuracy of the translation is far from harmless, because the readers get the impression or the belief that L. is subject to testing, manipulation, formation, etc. From the outside, formed L. becomes the presence of the one who formed it. L. is not a product of a collective, adaptation to it or integration into it, but the basis of a collective, of any human community that is not a crowd, herd, flock or pack. The community is strong in the diversity of L., constituting it. A synonym for L. is her freedom, along with a sense of guilt and responsibility. In this sense, L. is higher than the state, the nation, she is not inclined to conformism though not averse to compromise.

In growing up. the philosophical tradition of L. is a miracle and a myth (A. F. Losev); "L. the same, understood in the sense pure L., there is for everyone I am only an ideal - the limit of aspirations and self-construction ... But it is impossible to give the concept of L. ... it is incomprehensible, goes beyond the limits of any concept, transcendental to any concept. You can only create a symbol of the root characteristic of L ... As for the content, it cannot be. rational, but - only directly experienced in the experience of self-creation, in the active self-construction of L., in the identity of spiritual self-knowledge ”( Florensky P.A.).M.M.Bakhtin continues the thought of Florensky: when we are dealing with the knowledge of L. we must generally go beyond the subject-object relations, by which the subject and the object are considered in epistemology. This must be taken into account by psychologists who use strange phrases: "subjectivity of L.", "psychological subject." Regarding the latter, he openly sarcastically G.G.Shpet: “A psychological subject without a residence permit and without a physiological organism is simply a native of a world unknown to us ... if we take him for real, he will certainly draw in an even greater wonder - a psychological predicate! Today, philosophically and psychologically suspicious subjects and their shadows are increasingly wandering through the pages of psychological literature. A shameless subject, a soulless subject is, most likely, not quite normal, but familiar. A sincere, conscientious, spiritualized subject is funny and sad. Subjects can represent, including all sorts of abominations, and L. - personify. It is no coincidence that Losev linked the origin of the word L. with a face, and not with a mask, person, or mask. L., as a miracle, as a myth, as uniqueness, does not need extensive disclosure. Bakhtin reasonably noted that L. can reveal himself in a gesture, in a word, in an act (or maybe drown). A.A.Ukhtomsky was undoubtedly right in saying that L. is individuality, her condition. It should be added - a state of mind and spirit, and not an honorary title for life. After all, she can lose face, distort her face, drop her human dignity, which is taken by effort. Ukhtomsky echoed N.A.Bernstein, saying that L. is the supreme synthesis of behavior. Supreme! In L., integration, fusion, and harmony of external and internal are achieved. And where there is harmony, science, including psychology, falls silent.

So, L. is a mysterious excess of individuality, its freedom, which defies calculation and prediction. L. is visible immediately and entirely and thus differs from the individual, whose properties are subject to disclosure, testing, study and evaluation. L. is the subject of surprise, admiration, envy, hate; the subject of an unbiased, disinterested, understanding penetration and artistic portrayal. But not an object of practical interest, formation, manipulation. The foregoing does not mean that psychologists are contraindicated to think about L. But to think, and not to define or reduce it to a hierarchy motives, its totality needs,creativity, crosshairs activities,affects,meanings, subject, individual, etc., etc.

Let us give examples of useful reflections about L. A. S. Arseniev: L. is a reliable person, whose words and deeds do not differ from each other, who freely decides what to do and is responsible for the results of his actions. L. is, of course, an infinite being, breathing bodily and spiritually. L. is characterized by the awareness conflict between morality and morality and the primacy of the latter. The author insists on the value, not the monetary-market measurement L. T. M. Buyakas highlights other features: L. is a person who has embarked on the path of self-determination, overcoming the need to seek support in external support. L. has the ability to fully rely on himself, to make an independent choice, to take his position, to be open and ready for any new turns in his life. L. ceases to depend on external assessments, trusts himself, finds inner support in himself. She is free. No description of L. can be used. comprehensive. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

A large psychological dictionary. - M .: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .

Personality

   PERSONALITY (with. 363)

The concept of "personality" is one of the most vague and controversial in psychology. We can say how many theories of personality exist (and dozens of them have been created by the largest psychologists), as many have its definitions. At the same time, there are some basic ideas about personality that are shared by most specialists.

Almost all psychologists agree that people are not born, but become, and for this a person must make considerable efforts - first to master speech, and then with its help many motor, intellectual and cultural skills. The personality is viewed as the result of the socialization of the individual, who assimilates ("appropriates") the traditions and value orientations developed by human society over the millennia of its formation. The more a person was able to perceive and assimilate in the process of socialization, the more developed a person he is.

Can a person not be a person? For example, is it an infant, a mentally handicapped person, or an inveterate criminal as a person? These issues are constantly discussed not only by psychologists, but also by philosophers, doctors, and lawyers. It is difficult to answer them unambiguously, since each case requires specific consideration. Nevertheless, most scientists are inclined to recognize that all people have the right to be called a person, although in some cases - with certain reservations. It is more correct to call a child, adolescent, and young man a developing personality, since at these age stages there are only the inclinations of a mature personality, which must still develop and take shape into an integral system of properties. As for mentally disabled people, the degree of preservation of their personality can be very different - from small deviations from the norm in the so-called borderline states to significant personality destruction in severe mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia. In cases of mental pathology, the attitude, motivation of behavior, and the peculiarities of a person's thinking are qualitatively different from those of healthy people, therefore it is more correct in such cases to use the concept of “pathological” or “abnormal” personality. Criminals who are recognized as mentally healthy are asocial personalities, since their accumulated knowledge, skills and abilities are directed against the society that formed them. Personality can be lost by a person due to a serious illness or extreme old age, which manifests itself in the loss of self-awareness, the ability to navigate not only in time and space, but also in human relations, etc.

Many psychologists agree that the main way of a person's existence is constant development aimed at realizing their capabilities in activity and communication. As soon as a person stops efforts to develop his mental functions, social and professional skills and abilities, personality regression immediately begins.

Popular psychological encyclopedia. - M .: Eksmo... S.S. Stepanov. 2005.

Personality

Personality is a phenomenon of social development, a living person with consciousness and self-awareness. The term refers to the stable characteristics or traits of a person that determine his thinking and behavior in different situations. It also implies that different people behave differently in similar situations, and that the difference in behavior is a product of the dissimilarity of their personalities. Personality is separated from other, more transient states (such as mood) because of its stability over time. Given these prerequisites, it can be concluded that a person should behave in a consistent manner in different situations. For example, an extrovert will exhibit signs of extroverted behavior wherever he is. Opponents of this point of view argue that behavior does not remain constant over time, but depends on the characteristics of a given situation.

History of words - (lat. Persona). The concept of "personality" is one of those concepts that throughout the history of human thought have caused the greatest discrepancy in definitions. And the volume and content of this concept in the interpretation of each philosopher, ... ... Great medical encyclopedia

the individual himself as an active subject of social relations and purposeful activity activity, as well as the systemic quality of the individual, due to his conscious activity in the system of social ties and emerging in the conditions of interaction and communication. Historians of psychology have repeatedly emphasized that the concept of "personality", having a basic categorical status within the framework of psychological science, was interpreted in the theoretical constructions of various scientific schools and directions in fundamentally different ways. So, for example, A. V. Petrovsky, noting the ambiguity of understanding the psychological essence of personality by many of its researchers and tracing the historical trajectory of scientific advancement in the study of the psychological content of this concept, noted: (Z. Freud, A. Adler) personality was interpreted as an ensemble of irrational unconscious drives. Behaviorism actually removed the problem of personality, which had no place in the mechanistic system "SR" ("stimulus - response"). Concepts of K. Levin, A. Maslow, G. Allport, K. Rogers, which are very productive in terms of specific methodological solutions, reveal a certain limitation, which manifests itself in physicalism, the transfer of mechanics to the analysis of personality manifestations (K. Levin), in indeterminism in humanistic psychology "And existentialism. The successes of Western empirical psychology in the field of personality psychotherapy, communication training, etc. are noticeable. In Russian psychology, a person as a person is characterized by a system of relations conditioned by life in society, the subject of which he is. In the process of interacting with the world, an actively acting personality acts as a whole, in which cognition of the environment is carried out in unity with experience. The personality is considered in the unity (but not identity) of the sensible essence of its carrier - the individual and the conditions of the social environment (B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev). The natural properties and characteristics of the individual appear in the personality as socially conditioned elements of it ... The personality is characterized by activity, that is, the desire of the subject to go beyond its own limits, expand the scope of its activities, to act outside the boundaries of the requirements of the situation and role prescriptions (achievement motivation, risk, etc.). NS.). Personality is characterized by directionality - a stable dominant system of motives, interests, beliefs, ideals, tastes, etc., in which human needs manifest themselves, deep semantic structures (“dynamic semantic systems” according to L. Vygotsky), which condition her consciousness and behavior, are relatively resistant to verbal influences and are transformed in the joint activity of groups and collectives (the principle of active mediation), the degree of awareness of their attitudes to reality: attitudes (according to V.N. Myasishchev), attitudes (according to V.N. D. N. Uznadze, A. S. Prangishvili, Sh. A. Nadirashvili), dispositions (according to V. A. Yadov), etc. " Today, the most scientifically "advanced" concept of personality within the framework of domestic social psychology is designated as the concept of personalization (V.A. qualities: symptom complexes of mental properties that form her personality, motives, personality orientations, personality structure, temperament features, abilities, etc .; b) as the inclusion of the individual in the space of interindividual connections, where the relationships and interactions that arise in the group can be interpreted as carriers of the personality of their participants; c) as an ideal representation of individuals in the life of other people, including outside of their actual contacts, as a result of significant changes in the semantic formations of interaction partners, their affective-needful sphere and characteristics of behavioral activity carried out by the individual. At the same time, a person experiences a natural, socially determined need to “be a person”, that is, to be, as much as possible, “ideally represented” in the minds of other people, first of all, by those features, facets of individuality that he himself values ​​in himself. Obviously, the need to "be a person" can be satisfied only with the appropriate ability. It is also easy to understand that the gap, the “fork” between this need and the ability can lead to serious disruptions in the process of personal development, qualitatively distort the line of personal growth, disrupt the general forward direction of movement towards true personal maturity.

It is quite understandable that the volume of empirical research, one way or another connected with the problem of personality, is truly enormous. At the same time, as GM Andreeva quite rightly notes, “the problem of personality is not only a problem of the entire totality of psychological sciences .... At present, the interest in the problems of the possibilities of the human personality is so great that practically all social sciences turn to this subject of research: the problem of the personality is at the center of both philosophical and sociological knowledge; ethics, pedagogy, and genetics are also involved in it ”1. It is no coincidence that the term personology is widely used in foreign psychology, covering not only the entire spectrum of the psychological concepts of personality itself, but also the ideas of related sciences about it.

In this regard, a necessary, albeit rather intractable, task is to isolate precisely the socio-psychological specifics of the study of personality. From the point of view of G. M. Andreeva, “social psychology, using the definition of personality given by general psychology, finds out how, that is, first of all, in which specific groups, a person, on the one hand, assimilates social influences ( through which of the systems of its activity), and on the other - how, in which specific groups it realizes its social essence (through which specific types of joint activity) ”2. To solve this problem, according to G.M. Andreeva, it is necessary to study the problems of the group, traditional for social and psychological research, but at the same time to consider them precisely from the “personal” and not “group” point of view, and at the same time separately investigate a number of specific problems : social attitude, social identity of a person, etc.

In foreign social psychology, along with the development of the three problems identified by G.M. Andreeva, most of the actual socio-psychological research of personality is in one way or another connected with the self-concept of the individual. It must be said that the concept of self-concept is widely interpreted by various authors, however, if we generalize the most common views, it can be characterized as a set of ideas of an individual about himself, or, in other words, the sum of significant personal identifications.

With a certain degree of conventionality, it can be argued that the self-concept is formed on the basis of information obtained from two sources - internal (self-perception) and external (social contacts).

The term "self-perception" was proposed by the psychologist D. Boehm to denote the tendency of people (based on the reflection of their own stable preferences and behavioral patterns) to make a generalizing conclusion about certain of their personal characteristics. For example, if a person periodically reacts violently to disagreement with his own point of view, he may characterize himself as hot-tempered, emotional, etc. At the same time, as D. Boehm himself believed, “many important aspects of one's own“ I ”have clear internal referents in the form of stable beliefs, attitudes and affective preferences, therefore there is a possibility that self-perception as a source of knowledge about oneself is applicable mainly to secondary, and not to significant aspects of one's own “I” ”1.

External sources of information, on the basis of which the individual self-concept is formed, are quite diverse, but the main ones are two: reflected assessment and feedback.

Reflected assessment suggests that people view their social environment as a kind of “mirror” and evaluate themselves depending on the reaction of those around them. At the same time, reference is essential for the individual, the subject perceived by him as a “mirror” (this is also true when receiving feedback). That this is indeed the case is clearly demonstrated by the results of an experiment conducted by a group of social psychologists at a US university. One of the two experimental groups of Catholic students was shown a photograph of the Pope frowning, while the other was shown a photograph of a complete stranger, also frowning. The control group, which consisted of non-Catholic students, was presented with the same photograph of the Pope as the first experimental group. Then “the students were asked to rate some of their inherent personality traits. Zealous Catholics who were shown a photograph of a frowning Pope rated themselves more severely than students who saw the same photo but were not strict adherents of Catholicism, or those Catholics who were shown a photograph of a stranger. ”2

This experiment also clearly demonstrated how the reflected assessment as a source of information about oneself is subject to attributive, projective and other distortions in the subjective perception of the individual. It is quite obvious that the Pope's "frown" in the photograph had and could not have anything to do with the subjects. Nevertheless, the reaction of those students for whom the Pope was a reference figure was such as if the non-verbal disapproval of the head of the Catholic Church was addressed to them personally.

From this point of view, feedback in most cases is a more reliable source of information, since it presupposes a fairly direct and targeted reaction of the social environment to certain actions of the individual and his personal qualities. At the same time, along with direct feedback, there are its indirect forms. For example, invitations (or, on the contrary, non-invitations) to business cooperation, joint leisure activities, etc., are a kind of feedback.

Under the influence of external and internal information, such an important element of the self-concept as self-esteem is formed from a practical point of view. According to the almost unanimous opinion of social psychologists who specialize in a variety of applied areas - from organizational to family counseling, “people with high self-esteem have a clear idea of ​​what personal qualities they have, think well of themselves, set themselves appropriate goals, use feedback to build self-esteem and handle difficult situations successfully. On the other hand, people with low self-esteem have less clear self-concepts, think badly of themselves, often choose unrealistic goals or avoid any goals altogether, tend to be pessimistic about the future, they also tend to have more adverse emotional reactions to criticism or other types of negative feedback and they are more concerned about their own social influence on other people "1.

A widely known confirmation of the validity of the last statement is the fact that, in almost every school, truly problematic students who are really prone to destructive and asocial behavior, as a rule, assess their not only intellectual, but also moral and moral qualities extremely low. It is no coincidence that one of the world's most famous specialists in the field of psychotherapy for children and adolescents, V. Satir, considered increasing self-esteem as one of the main means of modifying problem behavior.

However, the importance of self-esteem is great not only in relation to child and child-parent relationships, but also to a much broader socio-psychological context. In this regard, the fact that a large number of studies in foreign social psychology has been aimed at studying the mechanism of maintaining self-esteem in the process of interpersonal interaction looks quite natural. One of the most interesting concepts describing such mechanisms was developed by E. Tesser. He tried to understand how the achievements of significant others affect an individual's self-esteem (it should be added that relationships of interpersonal significance are considered within the framework of this concept mainly, but not exclusively, in terms of attraction preferences). E. Tesser came to the conclusion that the reaction to the success of a significant other depends not only on the degree of his attractiveness and reference, but also on the extent to which the field of activity in which this success is achieved corresponds to the self-determination of the individual. Depending on the combination of these two factors, there will be either a comparison effect or a reflection effect. The difference between them in the concept of E. Tesser is formulated as follows: “The effect of comparison. When another person surpasses us in activities or a certain type of behavior relevant to our self-determination, then the greater his success and the closer our relationship, the greater the threat to our self-esteem. We feel jealousy, frustration, and even anger. Reflection effect. When another person introduces us to activities or behavior that are irrelevant to our self-determination, then the greater his success and the closer our relationship, the more favorable this is reflected in our self-esteem. The process of reflection makes us feel positive and take pride in the other person's success ”1.

E. Tesser's concept has been confirmed in a number of studies. Everyday life experience also testifies to its fairness. The purchase of a new car by a neighbor with whom a good relationship is maintained is much more likely to cause envy and frustration among people (provided that they are also motorists) than a similar purchase of a stranger living on another street.

In general, the main provisions of the self-concept, although by no means exhaust the subject content of the social psychology of personality, allow the practical social psychologist to significantly simplify the procedural side of assessing the personality characteristics of certain members of a particular community and give him interpretive "keys" that allow him to draw reliable conclusions based on information obtained in the process of participatory and external observation, interviews and other relatively simple and economical methods of personality research.

This is all the more important due to the fact that a practical social psychologist who works with groups and organizations, solving practice-oriented and applied management problems, must rely on psychologically verified theoretical developments, including in the field of social psychology of the individual, without which it will simply be impossible for him to solve even the most "passing", momentary tasks of professionally adequate support of group life.

PERSONALITY

a person who has at least the most minimal and primitive set of qualities and skills that allow him to survive, act and be competitive in a particular society; an individual who has at least a minimally expressed and / or articulated identity according to socio-cultural, ethnic, confessional-ideological and / or other characteristics (criteria). (Kosolapov N.A., p.103)

PERSONALITY

Person; Personlichkeit) - aspects or hypostases of the soul that lives in the real world; for a developing personality, it is essential to separate from collective values, in particular from those inherited or already realized by the person.

"It is enough, for example, to carefully observe someone under various circumstances in order to discover how sharply his personality changes when moving from one environment to another, and each time a sharply outlined and clearly different character is revealed.<...>In accordance with social conditions and needs, the social character is oriented, on the one hand, on the expectations and requirements of the business environment, on the other hand, on the social intentions and aspirations of the subject himself. Usually, the domestic character is formed, rather, according to the spiritual needs of the subject and his needs for convenience, which is why it happens that people in public life are extremely energetic, courageous, stubborn, stubborn and shameless, at home and in the family they turn out to be good-natured, gentle, compliant and weak. Which character is true, where is the real person? Such a person does not have a real character at all, he is generally not individual, but collective, that is, he corresponds to general circumstances, meets general expectations. If he were individual, he would have the same character with all the differences in attitude. He would not be identical with each given attitude and would not, and would not want to, prevent his individuality from being expressed in this way, and not otherwise, in one or the other state. In reality, he is individual, like any creature, but only unconsciously. By his more or less complete identification with each given attitude, he deceives at least others, and often himself, as to what his real character is; he puts on a mask, about which he knows that it corresponds, on the one hand, to his own intentions, on the other, to the claims and opinions of his environment, and one or the other moment prevails "(PT, par. 697-698).

PERSONALITY

the phenomenon of social development, a concrete living person with consciousness and self-awareness. Personality structure is an integral systemic formation, a set of socially significant mental properties, relationships and actions of an individual that have developed in the process of ontogenesis and determine his behavior as the behavior of a conscious subject of activity and communication. Personality is a self-regulating dynamic functional system of continuously interacting properties, relationships and actions that develop in the process of human ontogenesis. The core formation of the personality is self-esteem, which is based on the assessments of the individual by other people and his assessment of these others. In a broad, traditional sense, it is a personality; it is an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. The structure of the personality includes all the psychological characteristics of a person, and all the morphophysiological characteristics of his body - up to the characteristics of metabolism. The popularity and persistence of such an expanded understanding in literature is apparently due to its similarity with the everyday meaning of the word. In a narrow sense - the systemic quality of the individual determined by his involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activity and communication.

According to A.N. Leontiev, personality is a qualitatively new formation. It is shaped by living in society. Therefore, only a person can be a person, and then only after reaching a certain age. In the course of activity, a person enters into relationships with other people - into social relationships, and these relationships become personality-forming. From the side of the person himself, his formation and life as a person appear primarily as development, transformation, subordination and re-subordination of his motives. This representation is rather complicated and requires explanation. It does not coincide with the traditional interpretation - in a broad sense. The narrowed concept allows us to isolate a very important aspect of human existence, associated with the social nature of his life. A person as a social being acquires new qualities, which are absent if we consider him as an isolated, non-social being. And each person from a certain time begins to make a certain contribution to the life of society and individuals. That is why, next to the concepts of personality and personal, the concept of socially significant appears. Although this significant may be socially unacceptable: a crime is as much a personal act as a heroic deed. For the psychological concretization of the concept of personality, it is necessary to answer at least the questions about what the new formation called personality consists of, how the formation of personality occurs, as it appears from the position of the subject himself, the growth and functioning of his personality. The criteria for a formed personality are as follows:

1) the presence of hierarchy in motives in a certain sense - as the ability to overcome one's own immediate impulses for the sake of something else - the ability to behave mediated. It is assumed that the motives, thanks to which the immediate impulses are overcome, are social in origin and meaning (simply mediated behavior can be based on a spontaneously formed hierarchy of motives, and even "spontaneous morality": the subject may not be aware of what exactly forces him to act in a certain way "but to act quite morally);

2) the ability to consciously guide their own behavior; this leadership is conducted on the basis of conscious motives, goals and principles (in contrast to the first criterion, it is precisely the conscious subordination of motives that is assumed here - the conscious mediation of behavior, which presupposes the presence of self-awareness as a special instance of the personality). In didactic terms, all the properties, relationships and actions of a person can be conditionally combined into four closely related functional substructures, each of which is a complex formation that plays a certain role in life:

1) regulation system;

2) stimulation system;

3) stabilization system;

4) display system. In the course of social development of a person, the systems of regulation and stimulation constantly interact, and on their basis there are more and more complex mental properties, relationships and actions that direct the person to solving life problems. The unity of the personality along the entire path of life is ensured by the memory-continuity of goals, actions, relationships, claims, beliefs, ideals, etc. Western psychology considers a person as a "completely mental being." In mental psychology and in psychoanalysis, personality was interpreted as an ensemble of irrational unconscious drives. The concepts of K. Levin, A. Maslow, G. Allport, K. Rogers, which are very productive in terms of specific methodological solutions, also reveal a certain limitation. But in the field of personality psychotherapy, communication training and other things, the successes of Western empirical psychology are very noticeable. In Russian psychology, the personality is considered in unity (but not identity) and the sensual essence of its bearer - the individual and the conditions of the social environment. The natural properties and characteristics of the individual appear in the personality as its socially conditioned elements. Personality is a mediating link through which external influence is associated with its effect in the psyche of an individual. The emergence of a personality "hell of systemic quality" is due to the fact that an individual in a joint activity with other individuals changes the world and through this change transforms himself, becoming a personality.

1) activity - the desire of the subject to go beyond his own limits, to expand the scope of activity, to act outside the boundaries of the requirements of the situation and role prescriptions;

2) directionality - a stable dominant system of motives - interests, beliefs, ideals, tastes and other things, in which a person's needs manifest themselves;

3) deep semantic structures (dynamic semantic systems, according to L. S. Vygotsky), which determine her consciousness and behavior; they are relatively resistant to verbal influences and are transformed in the activities of joint groups and collectives (the principle of activity mediation);

4) the degree of awareness of one's relationship to reality: attitudes, attitudes, dispositions, etc. A developed personality has a developed self-awareness, which does not exclude an unconscious mental regulation of some important aspects of its activity. Subjectively for the individual, the personality acts as his I, as a system of ideas about himself, constructed by the individual in the processes of activity and communication, which ensures the unity and identity of his personality and reveals himself in self-assessments, in a sense of self-respect, the level of claims, etc. how the individual sees himself in the present, in the future, what he would like to be, if he could, etc. Correlation of the self image with the real circumstances of the individual's life allows the personality to change behavior and realize the goals of self-education. An appeal to the self-esteem and self-esteem of a person is an important factor in the directional influence on a person during upbringing. Personality as a subject of interpersonal relationships reveals itself in three representations that form a unity:

1) personality as a relatively stable set of its intraindividual qualities: symptom complexes of mental properties that form its individuality, motives, personality orientations; structure of personality, characteristics of temperament, ability;

2) personality as the inclusion of an individual in the space of interindividual connections, where relationships and interactions that arise in a group can be interpreted as carriers of the personalities of their participants; in this way, for example, a false alternative in understanding interpersonal relationships is overcome, either as group phenomena or as personality phenomena: the personal acts as a group, the group - as a personal;

3) personality as the "ideal representation" of the individual in the life of other people, including outside of their actual interaction; as a result of the semantic transformations of the spheres of intellectual and affective-need of other personalities actively realized by a person. An individual in his development experiences a socially determined need to be a person - to believe himself in the life of other people, continuing his existence in them, and discovers the ability to be a person, realized in socially significant activities. The presence and characteristics of the ability to be a person can be identified using the method of reflected subjectivity. The development of personality occurs in the conditions of socialization of the individual and his upbringing.

PERSONALITY

A stable complex of socially significant traits inherent in the individual and socially conditioned. L. is a person as a whole, consciousness and self-awareness are inherent in him. The social conditioning of personality traits indicates the need to study it in the context of social conditions.

PERSONALITY

English personality; from lat. persona - actor's mask; role, position; face, personality). In the social sciences, L. is regarded as a special quality of man, acquired by him in the sociocultural environment in the process of joint activity and communication. In humanistic philosophical and psychological concepts, L. is a person as a value for the sake of which the development of society is carried out (see I. Kant). With all the variety of approaches to understanding L., a trace is traditionally distinguished. aspects of this problem: 1) the versatility of the phenomenology of L., reflecting the objectively existing diversity of human manifestations in the evolution of nature, the history of society and its own life; 2) the interdisciplinary status of the L. problem, which is in the field of the study of social and natural sciences; 3) the dependence of the understanding of L. on the image of a person who explicitly or latently exists in culture and science at a certain stage of their development; 4) the discrepancy between the manifestations of the individual, L. and individuality, studied within the relatively independent biogenetic, socio-genetic and personogenetic directions of modern human science; 5) the cultivation of a research attitude that orientates a specialist towards understanding the development of L. in nature and society, and a practical attitude aimed at the formation or correction of L. in accordance with the goals set by society or set by a specific person who has applied to a specialist.

The focus of attention of representatives of biogenetic orientation is the problems of human development as an individual with certain anthropogenetic properties (inclinations, temperament, biological age, sex, body type, neurodynamic properties of N.S., organic impulses, drives, needs, etc.), which undergo various stages of maturation as the phylogenetic program of the species is implemented in ontogeny. The maturation of an individual is based on the adaptive processes of the body, which are studied by differential and age-related psychophysiology, psychogenetics, neuropsychology, gerontology, psychoendocrinology and sexology. (See also Human Constitution.)

Representatives of different currents of sociogenetic orientation study the processes of human socialization, the development of social norms and roles, the acquisition of social attitudes (see Attitude) and value orientations, the formation of the social and national character of a person as a typical member of a particular community. Problems of socialization, or, in a broad sense, social adaptation of a person, are being developed by Mr. in sociology and social psychology, ethnopsychology, history of psychology. (See also Basic personality structure, Marginal personality, Social psychology.)

The focus of personogenetic orientation is on the problems of activity, self-awareness and creativity of L., the formation of the human self, the struggle of motives, the upbringing of individual character and abilities, self-realization and personal choice, and the constant search for the meaning of life. The study of all these manifestations of L. is engaged in the general psychology of L.; various aspects of these problems are covered in psychoanalysis, individual psychology, analytical and humanistic psychology.

In the isolation of biogenetic, sociogenetic, and personogenetic directions, a metaphysical scheme for the determination of L.'s development is manifested under the influence of 2 factors: environment and heredity (see Convergence theory). Within the framework of the cultural-historical systemic-activity approach, a fundamentally different scheme of determination of the development of L. is developed. In this scheme, the properties of a person as an individual are considered as "impersonal" prerequisites for the development of L., which in the course of the life path can receive personal development.

The sociocultural environment is a source that nourishes the development of L., and not a "factor" that directly determines behavior. As a condition for the implementation of human activity, it carries those social norms, values, roles, ceremonies, tools, systems of signs that the individual encounters. The true foundations and driving force of L.'s development are joint activity and communication, through which L.'s movement in the human world is carried out, its introduction to culture. The relationship between an individual as a product of anthropogenesis, a person who has assimilated social and historical experience, and an individual who transforms the world, m. B. conveyed by the formula: "They are born as an individual. They become a person. They defend individuality."

Within the framework of the system-activity approach, L. is viewed as a relatively stable set of mental properties, as a result of the inclusion of the individual in the space of interindividual connections. An individual in his development experiences a socially conditioned need to be L. and discovers the ability to become L., realized in socially significant activities. This determines the development of a person as L.

The abilities and functions that form in the course of development reproduce in L. the historically formed human qualities. The mastery of reality in a child is carried out in his activity with the mediation of adults. The child's activity is always mediated by adults, directed by them (in accordance with their ideas about proper upbringing and pedagogical skills). Relying on what the child already possesses, adults organize his activities to master new aspects of reality and new forms of behavior (see Children's activity).

L. development is carried out in activity (see. Leading activity), controlled by a system of motives. The activity-mediated type of relationship that develops in a person with the most referential group (or person) is a determining factor in development (see. Activity-mediated interpersonal relations theory).

In general, the development of L. m. presented as a process and result of a person's entry into a new socio-cultural environment. If an individual enters into a relatively stable social community, under favorable circumstances, he goes through 3 phases of his formation in it as L. The 1st phase - adaptation - presupposes the assimilation of existing values ​​and norms and the mastery of the corresponding means and forms of activity, and thus to some extent assimilation of the individual to other members of this community. 2nd phase - individualization - is generated by the sharpening contradictions between the need to "be like everyone else" and L.'s desire for maximum personalization. The third phase - integration - is determined by the contradiction between the desire of the individual to be ideally represented by his own characteristics and differences in the community and the need for the community to accept, approve and cultivate only those features that contribute to its development and thereby the development of himself as L. If the contradiction is not eliminated, disintegration sets in and, as a consequence, either L.'s isolation, or its displacement from the community, or degradation with a return to earlier stages of its development.

When an individual fails to overcome the difficulties of the adaptation period, he has the qualities of conformity, dependence, shyness, and uncertainty. If in the 2nd phase of development an individual, presenting to the reference group for him the personal properties that characterize his individuality, does not meet with mutual understanding, then this can contribute to the formation of negativism, aggressiveness, suspicion, deceit. Upon successful completion of the integration phase in a highly developed group, the individual develops humanity, trust, justice, self-exactingness, self-confidence, etc. into various groups, it is reproduced many times, the corresponding personal neoplasms are fixed, a stable structure of L.

A particularly significant period in the age development of L. is adolescence (adolescence) and early adolescence, when developing L. begins to distinguish itself as an object of self-knowledge and self-education. Initially assessing others, L. uses the experience of such assessments, developing self-esteem, which becomes the basis for self-education. But the need for self-knowledge (first of all in the awareness of one's moral and psychological qualities) cannot be used. identified with leaving the world of inner experiences. The growth of self-awareness, associated with the formation of such qualities of L., as will and moral feelings, contributes to the emergence of persistent beliefs and ideals. The need for self-awareness and self-education is generated, first of all, by the fact that a person must realize his capabilities and needs in the face of future changes in his life, in his social status. If there is a significant discrepancy between the level of L.'s needs and her capabilities, acute affective experiences arise (see. Affects).

In the development of self-awareness in adolescence, the judgments of other people play a significant role, and above all, the assessment by parents, teachers, and peers. This makes serious demands on the pedagogical tact of parents and teachers, requires an individual approach to each developing L.

Conducted in the Russian Federation since the mid-1980s. work to renew the education system presupposes the development of education for children, adolescents, and young men, and the democratization and humanization of the educational process in all types of educational institutions. Thus, there is a change in the goal of education and training, which is not the aggregate of knowledge, abilities, and skills, but the free development of a human being. Knowledge, skills and abilities retain their extremely important value, but not as a goal, but as a means to an end. Under these conditions, the task of forming the basic culture of Latvia comes to the fore, which would make it possible to eliminate the contradictions between technical and humanitarian culture in the structure of Latvia, overcome the alienation of man from politics, and ensure his active inclusion in the new socio-economic conditions of society. The implementation of these tasks presupposes the formation of a culture of self-determination of L., an understanding of the intrinsic value of human life, its individuality and uniqueness. (A.G. Asmolov, A.V. Petrovsky.)

Ed. Addendum: The almost generally accepted translation of the word L. to & kpersonality (and vice versa) is not entirely adequate. Personality is more about individuality. In Peter's times, a doll was called a person. L. is selfhood, self ness or self, which is close to Russian. the word "self". A more accurate equivalent to the word "L." in eng. lang. does not exist. The inaccuracy of the translation is far from harmless, for the readers get the impression or the belief that L. is subject to testing, manipulation, formation, etc. From the outside, formed L. becomes the reality of the one who formed it. L. is not a product of a collective, adaptation to it or integration into it, but the basis of a collective, of any human community that is not a crowd, herd, flock or pack. The community is strong in the diversity of L., constituting it. A synonym for L. is her freedom, along with a sense of guilt and responsibility. In this sense, L. is higher than the state, the nation; it is not inclined towards conformism, although it is not alien to compromise.

In growing up. the philosophical tradition of L. is a miracle and a myth (A. F. Losev); "L., meanwhile, understood in the sense of pure L., is for everyone I am only an ideal - the limit of aspirations and self-construction ... It is impossible to give the concept of L. it is impossible ... it is incomprehensible, goes beyond the limits of any concept, transcendental to every concept. to create a symbol of the radical characteristic of L. ... As for the content, it cannot be rational, but only directly experienced in the experience of self-creativity, in the active self-construction of L., in the identity of spiritual self-knowledge "(Florensky P.A. .). MM Bakhtin continues the thought of Florensky: when we are dealing with the knowledge of L. we must generally go beyond the limits of subject-object relations, by which subject and object are considered in epistemology. This must be taken into account by psychologists who use strange phrases: "subjectivity of L.", "psychological subject". GG Shpet frankly sarcastically about the latter: “A psychological subject without a residence permit and without a physiological organism is simply a native of a world unknown to us ... if he is mistaken for real, he will certainly draw in an even greater miracle - a psychological predicate! Today, philosophically and psychologically suspicious subjects and their shadows are increasingly wandering through the pages of psychological literature. A shameless subject, a soulless subject is, most likely, not quite normal, but habitual. And a sincere, conscientious, spiritualized subject is funny and sad. Subjects can represent, in including all sorts of abominations, and L. - personify. It is no coincidence that Losev linked the origin of the word L. with a face, and not with a mask, person, mask.L., as a miracle, as a myth, as uniqueness does not need extensive disclosure. Bakhtin reasonably noted that L. can reveal himself in a gesture, in a word, in an act (or maybe drown.) A.A. Ukhtomsky was undoubtedly right when he said that L. is a functional person. rgan of individuality, its state. It should be added - a state of mind and spirit, and not an honorary title for life. After all, she can lose face, distort her face, drop her human dignity, which is taken by effort. N.A. Bernstein echoed Ukhtomsky, saying that L. is the supreme synthesis of behavior. Supreme! In L., integration, fusion, and harmony of external and internal are achieved. And where there is harmony, science, including psychology, falls silent.

So, L. is a mysterious excess of individuality, its freedom, which defies calculation and prediction. L. is visible immediately and entirely and thus differs from the individual, whose properties are subject to disclosure, testing, study and evaluation. L. is the subject of surprise, admiration, envy, hatred; the subject of an unbiased, disinterested, understanding penetration and artistic portrayal. But not an object of practical interest, formation, manipulation. What has been said does not mean that psychologists are contraindicated to think about L. But to think, and not to define or reduce it to the hierarchy of motives, the totality of its needs, creativity, the crosshair of activities, affects, meanings, subject, individual, etc., etc.

Let us give examples of useful reflections about L. A. S. Arseniev: L. is a reliable person, whose words and deeds do not differ from each other, who freely decides what to do and is responsible for the results of his actions. L. is, of course, an infinite being, breathing bodily and spiritually. L. is characterized by an awareness of the conflict between morality and morality and the primacy of the latter. The author insists on the value, not the monetary-market measurement L. T. M. Bu-yakas highlights other features: L. is a person who has embarked on the path of self-determination, overcoming the need to seek support in external support. L. has the ability to fully rely on himself, to make an independent choice, to take his position, to be open and ready for any new turns in his life. L. ceases to depend on external assessments, trusts himself, finds inner support in himself. She is free. No description of L. can be used. comprehensive. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

Personality

a set of relatively stable behavioral and cognitive characteristics, traits and predispositions that an individual tends to exhibit in a variety of situations, various environmental conditions, when interacting with other people, and which underlie individual differences.

Personality

Personality is a phenomenon of social development, a living person with consciousness and self-awareness. The term refers to the stable characteristics or traits of a person that determine his thinking and behavior in different situations. It also implies that different people behave differently in similar situations, and that the difference in behavior is a product of the dissimilarity of their personalities. Personality is separated from other, more transient states (such as mood) because of its stability over time. Given these prerequisites, it can be concluded that a person should behave in a consistent manner in different situations. For example, an extrovert will exhibit signs of extroverted behavior wherever he is. Opponents of this point of view argue that behavior does not remain constant over time, but depends on the characteristics of a given situation.

PERSONALITY

One of the classic "chapter titles" in psychology. That is, the term is so difficult to define and has such a wide area of ​​use that a wise author uses it as the title of a chapter and then writes freely about it, without taking any responsibility for the definitions, if they are presented in the text. In order not to repeat here the folly of several dozen unreasonable authors (G.V. Allport, since 1927, managed to collect about 50 different definitions from literature, and only heaven knows how many of them can be found today), we will characterize this term not definitionally, but rather in accordance with its role in personality theory. This approach seems to be the best, since the meaning of the term for each author tends to be colored by his theoretical predisposition and the empirical tools used to evaluate and test the theory. The simplest procedure would be to present several of the most influential general trends and describe how each characterizes the term.

Type theories. The oldest of these is the theory of Hippocrates, which you

put forward a hypothesis about four main temperaments: choleric, sangui

nic, melancholic and phlegmatic. Polo used here

the notion, as in all subsequent type theories, that each individual is

poses a certain balance of these basic elements. Most

the complete typological theory was the theory of V.G. Sheldon, who claims

gave (but unconvincingly) that body types are closely related to personality development.

See constitutional theory for a discussion. Carl Jung's approach though

and belongs in fact to psychoanalytic theories (see below), sometimes classified as a type theory because of its emphasis on classifying individuals by type, eg introvert-extrovert.

Hell theories. All theories of this kind proceed from the assumption that a person's personality is a compendium of traits or characteristic modes of behavior, thinking, feeling, reacting, etc. Early theories of traits were little more than lists of adjectives, and personality was defined by enumeration. More modern approaches have used the method of factor analysis in an attempt to isolate the main dimensions of personality. Perhaps the most influential theory here is that of R.B. Cattell, based on a set of deep traits, which, it was believed, each individual has quite a lot and which have "real structural influences that define personality." According to Cattell, the goal of personality theory is to construct an individual trait matrix with which to make predictions about behavior.

Note that the approaches in terms of types and traits are complementary and, indeed, it can be argued that these are two sides of the same coin. Type theories primarily deal with what is common to individuals; trait theories focus on what distinguishes them. However, they, of course, lead to very different understandings of the basic term personality.

3. Psychodynamic and psychoanalytic theories. It contains many approaches, including the classical theories of Freud and Jung, social

the psychological theories of Adler, Fromm, Sullivan and Horney, the more modern approaches of Laing and Perls, and others. There are many

differences, but they all contain an important common basic idea: the personality in them all is characterized through the concept of integration. A strong emphasis is usually placed on developmental factors, with the implicit assumption that the adult personality develops gradually over time, depending on how the various factors are integrated. In addition, much importance is given to the concepts of motivation, so that no consideration of personality problems is considered theoretically useful without assessing the main motivational syndromes. A synonym is character (2).

Behaviorism. The basis of this direction was the extension of the theory of learning to the study of personality. Although there is no influential

purely behavioral theory of personality, this trend stimulated

other theorists to a close examination of the integral problem:

which of the stable behavior demonstrated by most people is a consequence of basic types, or traits, or personality dynamics, and which

consequence of the constancy of the environment and the sequence accidentally

emerging reinforcements? Not surprisingly, the scientists mentioned below, who have been influenced to one degree or another by behaviorism, do not see the personality itself in their search for answers to these questions, and to some extent they question the need for the term personality.

Humanism. This trend arose as a reaction to what was perceived

accepted as the dominance of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in psychology. That

Some thinkers like Maslow, Rogers, May, and Frankl focused on phenomenology, where subjective psychic experience was paramount, on holism as opposed to the reductionism of behaviorism, and on the importance of striving for self-actualization (2). The main problems of humanism relate to the difficulty of scientific verification of many of its theoretical concepts. Nevertheless, it remains an important approach to the study of the personality ideal of the beginning of the movement of human potential.

Social learning theories. Many theoretical considerations with this

points of view stem from the problem of correlating the effects of the environment with the effects of properties given from nature. However, the concept of personality is considered here as those aspects of behavior that are acquired in a social context. Leading theorist Albert Bandura bases his position on the premise that, although learning is critical, factors other than simple reaction-stimulus and random reinforcements. In particular, cognitive factors such as memory, memory retention processes, and self-regulation processes are important, and many studies have focused on modeling and observing

teachings as a mechanism that can theoretically provide satisfactory

a new description of consistent behavior in social contexts.

Situationism. This direction, the founder of which was Walter Michel, is a derivative of behaviorism and the theory of social

learning. Its adherents believe that any observed stable pattern of behavior is largely determined by the characteristics of the situation, rather than by any internal types or personality traits. Indeed, the very concept of personality traits, from this point of view, is nothing more than a mental construction of the observer trying to give some meaning to the behavior of others, and exists only in the mind of the observer. Constancy of behavior is ascribed rather to the similarity of situations in which a person tends to find himself, than to internal constancy.

Interactionism. This position is eclectic. She admits that there is some truth in all of the above, more narrowly focused theories, and it argues that personality arises from the interactions of certain qualities and predispositions and the way the environment influences how these qualities and behavioral tendencies manifest themselves. It is not at all obvious that, according to this point of view, personality exists as a separate "thing". Rather, it becomes its own

kind of an official term for complex patterns of interaction.

It is interesting to note that the aforementioned theoretical approaches are viewed as representing two different generalizations regarding the term personality itself, since positions 1-3 represent a valid theoretical construct, a hypothetical, internal "essence" with a causal role in behavior and, from a theoretical point of view, with a genuine explanatory by force. Positions 4-8 are seen as a secondary factor inferred from persistence of behavior - while other operations and processes play an important causal role in defining behavior - and therefore, as a concept, it is not supported by strong arguments.

In addition to the above, of course, there are other theoretical approaches, which, in turn, have been the focus of science (for example, see existentialism, field theory). But the theories mentioned should be enough to give an idea of ​​the difference in meanings that the term personality can express. The term also occurs in a variety of compound forms, the most commonly used of which are listed below.

Personality in psychology, a person is called a bearer of consciousness. It is believed that individuals are not born, but become in the process of being and work, when, communicating and interacting, a person compares himself with others, highlights his "I". The psychological properties (traits) of a person are fully and vividly revealed in activities, communication, relationships, and even in the external appearance of a person.

Personalities are different - harmoniously developed and reactionary, progressive and one-sided, highly moral and mean, but at the same time each personality is unique. Sometimes this property - uniqueness - is called individuality, as a manifestation of the singular.

However, the concepts of individual, personality and individuality are not identical in content: each of them reveals a specific aspect of the individual being of a person. Personality can be understood only in a system of stable interpersonal relationships mediated by content, values, and the meaning of joint activities of each of the participants.

The interpersonal connections that form the personality in the team, externally appear in the form of communication or the subject - the subjective relationship, along with the subject - the object relationship characteristic of objective activity.

The personality of each person is endowed only with her inherent combination of features and characteristics that form her individuality - a combination of psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in character traits, temperament, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes, in abilities, and individual style of activity.

The way of life as a socially - philosophical concept selects from the variety of qualities and properties inherent in a given personality, only socially stable, socially typical, characterizing the social content of her personality, revealing a person, his style of behavior, needs, preferences, interests, tastes not from his psychological features that distinguish him from other people, and on the part of those properties and traits of his personality, which are set by the very fact of his existence in a certain society. But if by individuality is meant not a feature of a person's appearance or behavior, but a unique form of existence and a unique manifestation of the common in the life of an individual, then the individual is also social. Therefore, the lifestyle of a person acts as a deeply individualized relationship of the objective position of a person in society with his inner world, that is, it represents a kind of unity of the socially typified (unified) and individual (unique) in behavior, communication, thinking and everyday life of people.

In other words, a person's worldview acquires a socially practical and moral value, insofar as it has become a person's way of life.

From a moral point of view, a sign of a person's personal development is his ability to act according to his inner conviction in the most difficult everyday situations, not to shift responsibility to others, not to rely blindly on circumstances and not even just “reckon” with circumstances, but also to resist them, intervene in the course events, showing their will, their character.

The values ​​and role of the collective in the formation and education of the individual are great. The rule of upbringing, formulated by the remarkable Soviet teacher A.S. Makarenko: proceed from the recognition of the person being brought up. And this must be done in all seriousness, without denying the educated persons the recognition of the possibility of their accomplishment of those deeds that the educator speaks of as high images of achieving exceptional results in the field of production, science and technology, literature and art.

Let not all dreams come true and not all plans come true. Let not all young people with whom the educator have dealings turn out to be gifted enough or be able to fully reveal their abilities. It is about something else. All of them will surely be ennobled by the attitude to them as to the highest value, unique individuals who, with proper development, can show the world all the achievements of the creative spirit available to man. In the worst case, a creative person may not work out, but a person will be formed who, at least, will not prevent others from becoming creative personalities.

You will not become a person by copying someone else. Only miserable one-sidedness can turn out. The construction of one's own personality cannot be carried out according to some standard project. As a maximum, only general settings can be obtained here. We must always count on the maximum realization of human capabilities, never saying in advance: “This will not work for me,” - to fully test your inclinations.

That's why development a person is the process of personality formation under the influence of external and internal, controlled and uncontrolled social and natural factors. Development manifests itself as a progressive complication, deepening, expansion, as a transition from simple to complex, from ignorance to knowledge, from lower forms of life and activity to higher ones.

Nature has given a lot to man, but has given birth to the weak. To make him strong, completely independent, you still need to work hard. First of all, to ensure physical development. In turn, physical and physiological development underlies psychological development as spiritual development. The processes of a person's reflection of reality are constantly becoming more complex and deepening: sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activity, abilities, interests, value orientations. Human social development is a continuation of mental development. It consists in the gradual entry into his society - in social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal, professional and other relations, in the assimilation of their functions in these relations. Having mastered these relations and their functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of a person. It means comprehension by him of his high mission in life, the emergence of responsibility before present and future generations, an understanding of the complex nature of the universe and the desire for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of a person's responsibility for his physical, physiological, mental and social development. Spiritual development is increasingly recognized as the core, the core of the formation of the personality in a person.

Humanity ensures the development of each of its representatives through education, passing on its own experience and previous generations.

Upbringing - in a broad sense, it is a purposeful process of forming the intellect, physical and spiritual strength of the individual, preparing her for life, active participation in labor activity. Education in the narrow sense of the word is a systematic and purposeful influence of the educator on the educated in order to form their desired attitude towards people and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Parents pass on to the newborn the experience of vertical walking, verbal communication, to the younger schoolchild - the experience of mathematical transformations, written communication, to adolescents and young men - the experience of various activities, etc. Throughout his life, a person assimilates some and someone's experience and only on its basis creates his own. Only by becoming the heir of the past does he become a full-fledged member of his society. In this sense, upbringing is a culturally forming process. In the process of upbringing a person, his development takes place, the level of which then affects upbringing, changes, deepens it. Better upbringing accelerates the pace of development, which then again affects upbringing. Throughout a person's life, these phenomena mutually support each other.

K. Marx and F. Engels paid great attention to the problems of upbringing and education of young people. They approached them from various but closely related sides - social, ideological, pedagogical, etc., assessing the role of education as the highest measure - the influence on the development of the individual, on the course of social progress.

They considered upbringing as one of the most important means.

In the aggregate of the thought of Marx and Engels on education, there is an integral dialectical-materialist concept, which is based on the following provisions: education is conditioned by the prevailing social relations; is historical and class in nature; has its own objective laws.

By upbringing, we mean three things:

At first: mental education.

Secondly: physical education.

Thirdly: technical training.

Marx and Engels paid great attention to ideological education, to familiarize young people with the history and traditions of the revolutionary struggle.

Under mental (intellectual) education, the founders of Marxism understood "mental education", which the younger generation should receive, first of all, at school. Marx and Engels called on young people to persistent, systematic study, to constant self-education, which is strongly dictated by life.

Marx and Engels called the combination of upbringing with productive labor a necessary condition for the technical education of the younger generation.

In the system of youth education, the founders of Marxism assigned an important place to physical culture. Engels saw the great role of these studies in the preparation of young men for military service.

No matter what "constituent parts" of upbringing the founders of Marxism spoke about, their thought was in one way or another aimed at the most important problem - the all-round development of the individual. In the final analysis, each of these constituent parts, and the entire process of education as a whole, must serve its formation.

It is possible to transfer experience, therefore, to educate through the media, in museums through art, through religion, in the management system through politics, ideology, directly in the family, in production through relations of production, etc. Among them, education stands out.

Education - the process and result of assimilating a certain system of knowledge and ensuring, on this basis, an appropriate level of personality development. Education is obtained mainly in the process of teaching and upbringing in educational institutions under the guidance of teachers. Education literally means creating an image, a certain completeness of upbringing in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is often interpreted as a result of a person's assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, skills and abilities, relationships. Then they talk about an educated person. Education is the quality of a developed personality who has mastered the experience, with the help of which she becomes able to orient herself in the environment, adapt to it, protect and enrich her, acquire new knowledge about her and through this continuously improve herself, i.e. again, improve your education.

A person is born without knowledge and skills, but through upbringing and education he receives all this in accordance with his age. At each age stage, development receives its own degree of formation, without exhausting itself. This is how the ideals, motives of actions, attitudes and other properties of a person are gradually formed.

But the person himself is active from birth. Its role in upbringing and education is enormous, if not decisive. The fact is that a person is born with the ability to develop. He is not a vessel into which the experience of mankind "merges". He himself is able to acquire this experience. Man himself created the external factors of his development.

The main human factors are self-education, self-education, self-education.

Self-education - This is the process of assimilation by a person of the experience of previous generations through internal mental factors that ensure development. Self-education is a process that is part of upbringing and is also aimed at human development. Thanks to him, a person in any educational system retains himself as an independent natural and social being, despite all the integration, i.e. its fusion with nature and society.

Education, if it is not violence, without self-education is not possible. They should be viewed as two sides of the same process, or as mutually continuing processes.

Carrying out self-education, a person can educate himself.

Self-education - is a system of internal self-organization to assimilate the experience of generations, aimed at their own development.

Self-education is a powerful factor fulfilling and enriching education organized by society.

Self-study is analogous to teaching.

Self-study is a process of direct acquisition by a person of the experience of generations through his own aspirations and by himself chosen means.

Here, a huge role is played by the inner spiritual world of a person, not only consciousness, but also the unconscious factor, intuition, the ability to learn not only from a teacher, but also from other people, friends, and nature. People say about such self-study: "learn from life." Self-study is based on the need for knowledge, on an innate cognitive instinct.

The founders of Marxism deeply revealed such a complex problem as "man and circumstances."

The character of each person is always composed of two elements: natural, rooted in the bodily organism of a person, and spiritual, developed in life, under the influence of upbringing and circumstances. But no matter how diverse the human types of educated peoples are, due to the endless variety of types of generic, family and personal, nature always manages to bring to the fore the trait of a nationality in an innumerable number of characteristic features in a person's appearance.

The trait of nationality is not only noticeable in itself, but is mixed with all other characteristic features of a person and gives each of them its own special shade.

Social upbringing, which strengthens and develops nationality in a person, developing at the same time his mind and his self-consciousness, powerfully contributes to the development of national self-consciousness in general.

If a person draws all his knowledge, sensations, etc. from the sensory world and experience received from this world, but it is necessary, therefore, to arrange the surrounding world so that a person in it cognizes and assimilates truly human things, so that he knows himself as a person. If the character of a person is created by circumstances, then it is necessary, therefore, to make the circumstances humane.

The teacher K. D. Ushinsky was deeply convinced that the upbringing of a free, independent and active human personality is a necessary condition for social development.

OUTPUT

The child will become a person - a social unit, a subject, a bearer of social and human activity only there and then, where and when he himself begins to perform this activity. At first with the help of an adult, and then without it.

Personality arises when an individual begins independently, as a subject, to carry out external activities according to norms and standards, given to him from the outside - that culture in the bosom of which he wakes up to human life, to human activity. In the meantime, human activity is directed at him, and he remains its object, the individuality, which he, of course, already possesses, is not yet a human individuality.

Therefore, the personality is only where there is freedom. Genuine freedom, not imaginary, freedom of the actual deployment of a person in real affairs, in relationships with other people, and not in conceit, not in the pleasure of feeling his imaginary uniqueness.

Do you want a person to become a person? Then put him from the very beginning - from childhood - into such a relationship with another person, within which he not only could, but also had to become a person.