55.0

For friends!

reference

Word "biochemistry" came to us from the 19th century. But as a scientific term, it stuck a century later thanks to the German scientist Karl Neuberg. It is logical that biochemistry combines the provisions of two sciences: chemistry and biology. Therefore, she is engaged in the study of substances and chemical reactions that take place in a living cell. Famous biochemists of their time were the Arab scientist Avicenna, the Italian scientist Leonardo da Vinci, the Swedish biochemist A. Tiselius, and others. Thanks to biochemical developments, methods such as separation of heterogeneous systems (centrifugation), chromatography, molecular and cellular biology, electrophoresis, electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis have appeared.

Description of activities

The activity of a biochemist is complex and multifaceted. This profession requires knowledge of microbiology, botany, plant physiology, medical and physiological chemistry. Specialists in the field of biochemistry are also engaged in research on issues of theoretical and applied biology, medicine. The results of their work are important in the field of technical and industrial biology, vitaminology, histochemistry and genetics. The work of biochemists is used in educational institutions, medical centers, biological production enterprises, agriculture and other areas. The professional activity of biochemists is mainly laboratory work. However, a modern biochemist deals not only with a microscope, test tubes and reagents, but also works with various technical devices.

Wage

average for Russia:average in Moscow:average in St. Petersburg:

Labor responsibilities

The main duties of a biochemist are scientific research and subsequent analysis of the results obtained.
However, the biochemist is not only involved in research and development. He can also work in the medical industry, where he conducts, for example, work on the study of the effect of drugs on the blood of humans and animals. Naturally, such an activity requires compliance with the technological regulations of the biochemical process. The biochemist monitors reagents, raw materials, chemical composition and properties of the finished product.

Features of career growth

A biochemist is not the most demanded profession, but specialists in this field are highly valued. The scientific developments of companies in different industries (food, agricultural, medical, pharmacological, etc.) are not complete without the participation of biochemists.
Domestic research centers closely cooperate with Western countries. A specialist with a confident command of a foreign language and confidently working at a computer can find a job in foreign biochemical companies.
A biochemist can realize himself in the field of education, pharmacy or management.

Biochemistry is a whole science that studies, firstly, the chemical composition of cells and organisms, and secondly, the chemical processes that underlie their life. The term was introduced into the scientific community in 1903 by a German chemist named Karl Neuberg.

However, the processes of biochemistry themselves have been known since ancient times. And on the basis of these processes, people baked bread and cooked cheese, made wine and tanned animal skins, treated diseases with herbs, and then medicines. And all this is based on biochemical processes.

So, for example, without knowing anything about science itself, the Arab scientist and doctor Avicenna, who lived in the 10th century, described many medicinal substances and their effect on the body. And Leonardo da Vinci concluded that a living organism can live only in an atmosphere in which a flame can burn.

Like any other science, biochemistry applies its own methods of research and study. And the most important of them are chromatography, centrifugation and electrophoresis.

Biochemistry today is a science that has made a great leap forward in its development. So, for example, it became known that of all the chemical elements on earth, a little more than a quarter is present in the human body. And most of the rare elements, except for iodine and selenium, are completely unnecessary for humans in order to maintain life. But such two common elements as aluminum and titanium have not yet been found in the human body. And it is simply impossible to find them - they are not needed for life. And among all of them, only 6 are those that are necessary for a person every day and it is from them that our body is 99%. These are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium and phosphorus.

Biochemistry is the science that studies the important constituents of foods such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Today we know almost everything about these substances.

Some people confuse the two sciences - biochemistry and organic chemistry. But biochemistry is a science that studies biological processes that occur only in a living organism. But organic chemistry is a science that studies certain carbon compounds, and these are alcohols, and ethers, and aldehydes and many, many other compounds.

Biochemistry is also a science that includes cytology, that is, the study of a living cell, its structure, functioning, reproduction, aging and death. This section of biochemistry is often called molecular biology.

However, molecular biology, as a rule, works with nucleic acids, while biochemists are more interested in proteins and enzymes that trigger certain biochemical reactions.

Today biochemistry more and more often uses the development of genetic engineering and biotechnology. However, by themselves, these are also different sciences that each study their own. For example, biotechnology studies methods of cloning cells, and genetic engineering is trying to find ways to replace a diseased gene in the human body with a healthy one and thereby avoid the development of many hereditary diseases.

And all these sciences are closely related to each other, which helps them to develop and work for the benefit of humanity.

Life and inanimate? Chemistry and Biochemistry? Where is the line between them? And is she there? Where is the connection? For a long time, nature has had the key to solving these problems. And only in the XX century it was possible to slightly reveal the secrets of life, and many of the cardinal questions became clearer when scientists came to research at the molecular level. Cognition of the physical and chemical foundations of life processes has become one of the main tasks of natural science, and it is in this direction that, perhaps, the most interesting results were obtained, which are of fundamental theoretical significance and promise a huge output in practice.

Chemistry has long been looking closely at natural substances involved in life processes.

Over the past two centuries, chemistry was destined to play an outstanding role in the knowledge of living nature. At the first stage, chemical study was descriptive, and scientists isolated and characterized a variety of natural substances, waste products of microorganisms, plants and animals, which often had valuable properties (drugs, dyes, etc.). However, it is only relatively recently that this traditional chemistry of natural compounds has been replaced by modern biochemistry, with its aspiration not only to describe, but also to explain, and not only the simplest, but also the most complex in living things.

Inorganic biochemistry

Inorganic biochemistry as a science took shape in the middle of the 20th century, when new areas of biology burst onto the scene, fertilized by the achievements of other sciences, and when specialists of a new mindset came to natural science, united by the desire and desire to more accurately describe the living world. And it is no coincidence that under the same roof of the old-fashioned building on Akademichesky Proezd, 18, there were two newly organized institutes representing the newest areas of chemical and biological science at that time - the Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds and the Institute of Radiation and Physicochemical Biology. These two institutes were destined to start a battle in our country for the knowledge of the mechanisms of biological processes and a detailed elucidation of the structures of physiologically active substances.

By this period, the unique structure of the main object of molecular biology - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the famous "double helix", became clear. (This is a long molecule, on which, like on a tape or a matrix, the complete "text" of all information about the body is recorded.) The structure of the first protein, the hormone insulin, appeared, and the chemical synthesis of the hormone oxytocin was successfully performed.

And what, in fact, is biochemistry, what does it do?

This science studies biologically important natural and artificial (synthetic) structures, chemical compounds - both biopolymers and low molecular weight substances. More precisely, the laws governing the relationship between their specific chemical structure and the corresponding physiological function. Bioorganic chemistry is interested in the subtle structure of a molecule of a biologically important substance, its internal connections, dynamics and the specific mechanism of its change, the role of each of its links in the performance of a function.

Biochemistry is the key to understanding proteins

Bioorganic chemistry undoubtedly made major advances in the study of protein substances. Back in 1973, the elucidation of the complete primary structure of the enzyme aspartate aminotransferase, consisting of 412 amino acid residues, was completed. It is one of the most important biocatalysts of a living organism and one of the largest proteins with a deciphered structure. Later, the structure of other important proteins was determined - several neurotoxins from the venom of the Central Asian cobra, which are used in the study of the mechanism of transmission of nervous excitation as specific blockers, as well as plant hemoglobin from yellow lupine nodules and the antileukemic protein actinoxanthin.

Rhodopsins are of great interest. It has long been known that rhodopsin is the main protein involved in the processes of visual reception in animals, and it is isolated from special systems of the eye. This unique protein receives light signals and provides us with the ability to see. It has been found that a rhodopsin-like protein is found in some microorganisms, but has a very different function (since bacteria "do not see"). Here he is an energy machine synthesizing energy-rich substances at the expense of light. Both proteins are very similar in structure, but their purpose is fundamentally different.

One of the most important objects of study was the enzyme involved in the implementation of genetic information. Moving along the DNA matrix, it seems to read the hereditary information recorded in it and on this basis synthesizes informational ribonucleic acid. The latter, in turn, serves as a matrix for protein synthesis. This enzyme is a huge protein, its molecular weight is close to half a million (remember: in water it is only 18) and consists of several different subunits. The elucidation of its structure was destined to help answer the most important question of biology: what is the mechanism of "removal" of genetic information, how is the decoding of the text written in DNA - the main substance of heredity.

Peptides

Scientists are attracted not only by proteins, but also by shorter chains of amino acids called peptides. Among them are hundreds of substances of enormous physiological significance. Vasopressin and angiotensin are involved in the regulation of blood pressure, gastrin controls the secretion of gastric juice, gramicidin C and polymyxin are antibiotics, which also include the so-called memory substances. In a short chain, a huge amount of biological information is written down by several "letters" of amino acids!

Today we are able to artificially obtain not only any complex peptide, but also a simple protein, such as insulin. The importance of such works can hardly be overestimated.

A method was created for the complex analysis of the spatial structure of peptides using a variety of physical and computational methods. But the complex volumetric architecture of the peptide determines all the specifics of its biological activity. The spatial structure of any biologically active substance, or, as they say, its conformation, is the key to understanding the mechanism of its action.

Among the representatives of a new class of peptide systems - depsipeltides - a team of scientists discovered substances of an amazing nature, capable of selectively transferring metal ions through biological membranes, the so-called ionophores. And the main one among them is valinomycin.

The discovery of ionophores constituted an entire era in membranology, since it made it possible to purposefully change the transport of alkali metal ions - potassium and sodium - through biomembranes. The transport of these ions is associated with the processes of nervous excitation, and the processes of respiration, and the processes of reception - the perception of signals from the external environment. Using valinomycin as an example, it was possible to show how biological systems are able to select only one ion from dozens of others, bind it into a conveniently transportable complex, and transfer it across the membrane. This amazing property of valinomycin lies in its spatial structure, which resembles an openwork bracelet.

Another type of ionophore is the antibiotic gramicidin A. This is a linear chain built of 15 amino acids, in space it forms a spiral of two molecules, and, as it was found, this is a true double helix. The first double helix in protein systems! And the spiral structure, embedding in the membrane, forms a kind of pore, a channel through which alkali metal ions pass through the membrane. The simplest model of an ion channel. It is understandable why gramicidin caused such a storm in membranology. Scientists have already obtained many synthetic analogues of gramicidin; it has been studied in detail on artificial and biological membranes. How much charm and significance there is in such a seemingly small molecule!

With the help of valinomycin and gramicidin, scientists were drawn into the study of biological membranes.

Biological membranes

But the composition of membranes always includes one more main component that determines their nature. These are fat-like substances, or lipids. Lipid molecules are small in size, but they form strong giant assemblies that form a continuous membrane layer. Protein molecules are embedded in this layer - and here is one of the models of a biological membrane.

Why are biomembranes important? In general, membranes are the most important regulatory systems of a living organism. Now, in the likeness of biomembranes, important technical means are being created - microelectrodes, sensors, filters, fuel cells ... And further prospects for using membrane principles in technology are truly endless.

Other interests of biochemistry

Research on the chemistry of nucleic acids occupies a prominent place. They are aimed at deciphering the mechanism of chemical mutagenesis, as well as at understanding the nature of the bond between nucleic acids and proteins.

Special attention has long been focused on artificial gene synthesis. A gene, or, to put it simply, a functionally significant portion of DNA, today can already be obtained by chemical synthesis. This is one of the most important areas of fashionable now "genetic engineering". Works at the junction of bioorganic chemistry and molecular biology require mastering the most complex techniques, friendly cooperation between chemists and biologists.

Another class of biopolymers is carbohydrates, or polysaccharides. We know typical representatives of this group of substances - cellulose, starch, glycogen, beet sugar. But in a living organism, carbohydrates perform a wide variety of functions. This is the protection of the cell from enemies (immunity), it is the most important component of the cell walls, a component of the receptor systems.

Finally, antibiotics. In laboratories, the structure of such important groups of antibiotics as streptotricin, olivomycin, albofungin, abikovchromycin, aureolic acid, which have antitumor, antiviral and antibacterial activity, has been clarified.

It is impossible to tell about all the searches and achievements of bioorganic chemistry. We can only say with certainty that bioorganics have more plans than what has been done.

Biochemistry works closely with molecular biology, biophysics, who study life at the molecular level. She became the chemical foundation of this research. The creation and widespread use of its new methods, new scientific concepts contributes to the further progress of biology. The latter, in turn, stimulates the development of chemical sciences.

Biochemical analysis - the study of a wide range of enzymes, organic and mineral substances. This analysis of metabolism in the human body: carbohydrate, mineral, fat and protein. Changes in metabolism show whether there is any pathology and in which organ.

This analysis is done if the doctor suspects a latent disease. The result of the analysis is the pathology in the body at the very initial stage of development, and the specialist can navigate the choice of drugs.

With this analysis, you can detect leukemia at an early stage, when the symptoms have not yet begun to appear. In this case, you can start taking the necessary drugs and stop the pathological process of the disease.

Sampling process and values ​​of analysis indicators

For analysis, blood is taken from a vein, about five to ten milliliters. It is placed in a special test tube. The analysis is carried out on an empty stomach of the patient, for more complete truthfulness. If there is no risk to health, it is recommended not to take medications before blood tests.

The most informative indicators are used to interpret the analysis results:
- the level of glucose and sugar - an increased indicator characterizes the development of diabetes mellitus in humans, a sharp decrease in it poses a threat to life;
- cholesterol - its increased content indicates the presence of vascular atherosclerosis and the risk of cardiovascular diseases;
- transaminases - enzymes that detect diseases such as myocardial infarction, liver damage (hepatitis), or the presence of any injury;
- bilirubin - its high values ​​indicate liver damage, massive destruction of red blood cells and impaired outflow of bile;
- urea and creatine - their excess indicates a weakening of the excretion function of the kidneys and liver;
- total protein - its indicators change when a serious illness or any negative process occurs in the body;
- amylase - is an enzyme of the pancreas, an increase in its level in the blood indicates an inflammation of the gland - pancreatitis.

In addition to the above, a biochemical blood test determines the content of potassium, iron, phosphorus and chlorine in the body. Only the attending physician can decipher the analysis results, who will prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Blood biochemistry is one of the most common and informative tests that doctors prescribe when diagnosing most diseases. Seeing its results, one can judge the state of work of all body systems. Almost every disease is reflected in the indicators of a biochemical blood test.

What you need to know

Blood sampling is carried out from a vein at the elbow bend, less often from veins on the hand and
forearm.

About 5-10 ml of blood is drawn into the syringe.

Later, the blood for biochemistry in a special test tube is placed in a specialized device, which has the ability to determine the required parameters with high accuracy. It should be borne in mind that different devices may have slightly different normal limits for certain indicators. The results will be ready with the express method during the day.

How to prepare

Biochemical research is carried out in the morning on an empty stomach.

Before donating blood, you must refrain from drinking alcohol for 24 hours.
The last meal should be the night before, no later than 18.00. No smoking two hours before check-in. Also exclude intense physical activity and, if possible, stress. Preparing for analysis is a responsible process.

What is part of biochemistry

Distinguish between basic and advanced biochemistry. It is impractical to define all the indicators that are possible. It goes without saying that the price and quantity of blood required for analysis increases. There is a certain conditional list of basic indicators that are assigned almost always, and there are many additional ones. They are prescribed by a doctor depending on the clinical symptoms and the purpose of the study.

The analysis is done using a biochemistry analyzer, in which test tubes with blood are placed

Basic indicators:

1. Total protein.
2. Bilirubin (direct and indirect).
3. Glucose.
4. ALT and AST.
5. Creatinine.
6. Urea.
7. Electrolytes.
8. Cholesterol.

Additional indicators:

1. Albumen.
2. Amylase.
3. Alkaline phosphatase.
4. GGTP.
5. Triglycerides.
6. C-reactive protein.
7. Rheumatoid factor.
8. Creatinine phosphokinase.
9. Myoglobin.
10. Iron.

The list is incomplete, there are still many narrowly targeted indicators for the diagnosis of metabolism and dysfunctions of internal organs. Now let's take a closer look at some of the most common blood biochemical parameters.

Total protein (65-85 grams / liter)

Displays the total amount of protein in the blood plasma (both albumin and globulin).
It can be increased with dehydration, due to the loss of water with repeated vomiting, with intense sweating, intestinal obstruction and peritonitis. It also increases with multiple myeloma, polyarthritis.

This indicator decreases with prolonged fasting and malnutrition, diseases of the stomach and intestines, when protein intake is disrupted. In liver diseases, its synthesis is disrupted. Protein synthesis is also impaired in some hereditary diseases.

Albumin (40-50 grams / liter)

One of the plasma protein fractions. With a decrease in albumin, edema develops, up to anasarca. This is due to the fact that albumin binds water. With its significant decrease, water does not stay in the bloodstream and is released into the tissues.
Albumin is reduced under the same conditions as total protein.

Total bilirubin (5-21μmol / liter)

Total bilirubin includes direct and indirect.

All the reasons for the increase in total bilirubin can be divided into several groups.
Extrahepatic - various anemias, extensive hemorrhages, that is, conditions accompanied by the destruction of red blood cells.

Hepatic causes are associated with the destruction of hepatocytes (liver cells) in oncology, hepatitis, liver cirrhosis.

Violation of the outflow of bile due to obstruction of the bile ducts with stones or a tumor.

With increased bilirubin, jaundice develops, the skin and mucous membranes acquire an icteric tint.

The rate of direct bilirubin is up to 7.9 μmol / liter. Indirect bilirubin is defined as the difference between total and direct bilirubin. Most often, its increase is associated with the breakdown of red blood cells.

Creatinine (80-115 μmol / liter)

One of the main indicators characterizing kidney function.

This indicator rises in acute and chronic kidney disease. Also, with increased destruction of muscle tissue, for example, with rhabdomyolysis after over-intense physical activity. May be increased in case of endocrine gland disease (hyperthyroidism, acromegaly). If a person eats a large amount of meat products, increased creatinine is also guaranteed.

Creatinine below normal has no special diagnostic value. May be reduced in vegetarians, in pregnant women in the first half of pregnancy.

Urea (2.1-8.2 mmol / liter)

Shows the state of protein metabolism. It characterizes the functioning of the kidneys and liver. An increase in urea in the blood can be due to impaired renal function, when they cannot cope with its excretion from the body. Also, with increased breakdown of proteins or increased intake of protein into the body with food.

A decrease in blood urea is observed in the third trimester of pregnancy, with a low-protein diet and severe liver disease.

Transaminases (ALT, AST, GGT)

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)- an enzyme synthesized in the liver. In blood plasma, its content should not normally exceed 37 U / liter for men and 31 U / liter for women.

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)- just like the AST enzyme, it is synthesized in the liver.
The norm in the blood for men is up to 45 units / liter, for women - up to 34 units / liter.

In addition to the liver, a large amount of transaminases is found in the cells of the heart, spleen, kidneys, pancreas, and muscles. An increase in its level is associated with the destruction of cells and the release of this enzyme into the blood. Thus, an increase in ALT and AST is possible in the pathology of all the above-mentioned organs, accompanied by cell death (hepatitis, myocardial infarction, pancreatitis, necrosis of the kidney and spleen).

Gamma Glutamyltransferase (GGT) participates in the exchange of amino acids in the liver. Its content in the blood increases with toxic liver damage, including alcohol. The level is also increased in pathology of the biliary tract and liver. It always increases with chronic alcoholism.

The norm of this indicator is up to 32 U / liter for men, up to 49 U / liter for women.
A low GGT is usually determined with cirrhosis of the liver.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (120-240 units / liter)

This enzyme is found in all tissues of the body and is involved in the energy processes of glucose and lactic acid oxidation.

Increased in diseases of the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis), heart (infarction), lungs (infarction-pneumonia), kidneys (various nephritis), pancreas (pancreatitis).
The decrease in LDH activity below the norm is diagnostically insignificant.

Amylase (3.3-8.9)

Alpha-amylase (α-amylase) is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, breaking down complex sugars to simple ones.

Increase the activity of the enzyme acute hepatitis, pancreatitis, mumps. Certain medications (glucocorticoids, tetracycline) may also affect.
Reduced amylase activity in pancreatic dysfunction and toxicosis of pregnant women.

Pancreatic amylase (p-amylase) is synthesized in the pancreas and enters the intestinal lumen, where the excess is almost completely dissolved by trypsin. Normally, only a small amount enters the bloodstream, where the indicator is normal in adults - no more than 50 units / liter.

Its activity is increased in acute pancreatitis. It can also be increased with alcohol and some medications, as well as with surgical pathology complicated by peritonitis. A decrease in amylase is an unfavorable sign that the pancreas is losing its function.

Total cholesterol (3.6-5.2 mmol / L)

On the one hand, it is an important component of all cells and an integral part of many enzymes. On the other hand, it plays an important role in the development of systemic atherosclerosis.

Total cholesterol includes high, low and very low density lipoproteins. Increased cholesterol in atherosclerosis, impaired liver function, thyroid gland, and obesity.

Atherosclerotic plaque in a vessel - a consequence of high cholesterol

Lowered cholesterol with a diet that excludes fats, with hyperthyroidism, infectious diseases and sepsis.

Glucose (4.1-5.9 mmol / liter)

An important indicator of the state of carbohydrate metabolism and the state of the pancreas.
Increased glucose can be after a meal, so the analysis is taken strictly on an empty stomach. It also increases when taking certain drugs (glucocorticosteroids, thyroid hormones), with pathology of the pancreas. Constantly elevated blood sugar is the main diagnostic criterion for diabetes mellitus.
Low sugar can be in acute infection, starvation, overdose of antihyperglycemic drugs.

Electrolytes (K, Na, Cl, Mg)

Electrolytes play an important role in the transport of substances and energy into the cell and back. This is especially important for the correct functioning of the heart muscle.

A change both in the direction of increasing concentration, and in the direction of decreasing leads to disturbances in the heart rhythm, up to cardiac arrest

Electrolyte norms:

• Potassium (K +) - 3.5-5.1 mmol / liter.
• Sodium (Na +) - 139-155 mmol / liter.
• Calcium (Ca ++) - 1.17-1.29 mmol / liter.
• Chlorine (Cl-) - 98-107 mmol / liter.
• Magnesium (Mg ++) - 0.66-1.07 mmol / liter.

Changes in the electrolyte balance are associated with alimentary causes (impaired intake into the body), impaired renal function, hormonal diseases. Also, pronounced electrolyte disturbances can be with diarrhea, indomitable vomiting, hyperthermia.

Three days before donating blood for biochemistry with the determination of magnesium, you must not take its preparations.

In addition, there are a large number of biochemistry indicators that are assigned individually for specific diseases. Before donating blood, your doctor will determine which specific indicators are taken in your situation. The procedure nurse will draw the blood and the laboratory technician will provide a transcript of the test. Norm indicators are given for an adult. In children and the elderly, they may differ slightly.

As you can see, a biochemical blood test is a very great assistant in diagnostics, but only a doctor can compare the results with the clinical picture.