Presented in Fig. 1 fundamental fermions with spin ½ represent the "first bricks" of matter. They are presented leptons(electrons e, neutrinos, etc.) - particles not participating in strong nuclear interactions, and quarks that are involved in strong interactions. Nuclear particles are made of quarks - hadrons(protons, neutrons and mesons). Each of these particles has its own antiparticle, which must be placed in the same cell. Antiparticle designation is distinguished by a tilde (~) symbol.

Of six varieties of quarks or six aromas electric charge 2/3 (in units of elementary charge e) possess the upper ( u), enchanted by ( c) and true ( t) quarks, and the charge –1/3 - the lower ( d), strange ( s) and beautiful ( b) quarks. Antiquarks with the same flavors will have electric charges of –2/3 and 1/3, respectively.

In quantum chromodynamics (the theory of strong interaction), strong interaction charges of three types are attributed to quarks and antiquarks: red R(anti-red); green G(anti-green); blue B(anti-blue). Color (strong) interaction binds quarks in hadrons. The latter are divided into baryons consisting of three quarks, and mesons consisting of two quarks. For example, baryon protons and neutrons have the following quark composition:

p = (uud) and , n = (ddu) and .

As an example, we present the composition of the triplet of pi-mesons:

, ,

It is easy to see from these formulas that the charge of a proton is +1, while for an antiproton it is –1. Neutron and antineutron have zero charge. The quark spins in these particles add up so that their total spins are equal to ½. Such combinations of the same quarks are also possible, for which the total spins are 3/2. Such elementary particles (D ++, D +, D 0, D -) have been found and belong to resonances, i.e. short-lived hadrons.

The well-known process of radioactive b-decay, which is represented by the diagram

n ® p + e + ,

from the point of view of quark theory looks like

(udd) ® ( uud) + e+ or d ® u + e + .

Despite repeated attempts to find free quarks in experiments, it was not possible. This suggests that quarks, most likely, manifest themselves only in the composition of more complex particles ( quark trapping). To date, a complete explanation of this phenomenon has not been given.

Figure 1 shows that there is a symmetry between leptons and quarks, called quark-lepton symmetry. The particles of the top line have a charge one more than the particles of the bottom line. The particles in the first column belong to the first generation, the second to the second generation, and the third column to the third generation. The quarks themselves c, b and t were predicted based on this symmetry. The matter around us is made up of first-generation particles. What is the role of second and third generation particles? There is no definitive answer to this question yet.

see also

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• S. A. Slavatinsky// Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region)
• Slavatinsky S.A. // SOZH, 2001, No 2, p. 62–68 archive http://web.archive.org/web/20060116134302/http://journal.issep.rssi.ru/annot.php?id=S1176
• // nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru
• // second-physics.ru
• // physics.ru
• // nature.web.ru
• // nature.web.ru
• // nature.web.ru

ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOTION OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY FOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AS WELL AS RELATIONSHIP AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE

V. P. Tsyupka

Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Belgorod State National Research University" (NRU "BelGU")

1. Movement of matter

"An integral property of matter is motion" 1, which is a form of existence of matter and manifests itself in any of its changes. From the non-creation and indestructibility of matter and its attributes, including movement, it follows that the movement of matter exists eternally and infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations.

The existence of any material object is manifested in its movement, that is, in any change occurring with it. In the course of a change, some properties of a material object always change. Since the totality of all the properties of a material object, which characterizes its certainty, individuality, peculiarity at a particular moment in time, corresponds to its state, it turns out that the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its states. Changing properties can go so far that one material object can become another material object. “But a material object can never turn into a property” (for example, mass, energy), and “a property - into a material object” 2, because only moving matter can be a changing substance. In natural science, the movement of matter is also called a natural phenomenon (natural phenomenon).

It is known that "without motion there is no matter" 3 as well as without matter there can be no motion.

The movement of matter can be quantified. The universal quantitative measure of the movement of matter, like any material object, is energy, which expresses the own activity of matter and any material object. Hence, energy is one of the properties of moving matter, and energy cannot be outside matter, apart from it. Energy is in equivalent relationship with mass. Consequently, mass can characterize not only the amount of a substance, but also the degree of its activity. From the fact that the movement of matter exists eternally and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations, it inexorably follows that the energy that characterizes the movement of matter quantitatively also exists eternally (uncreate and indestructible) and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations. “Thus, energy never disappears and does not appear again, it only transforms from one type to another” 1 in accordance with the change in the types of motion.

Various types (forms) of motion of matter are observed. They can be classified taking into account changes in the properties of material objects and the characteristics of their impact on each other.

The movement of the physical vacuum (free fundamental fields in the ordinary state) is reduced to the fact that it all the time slightly deviates in different directions from its equilibrium, as if “trembling”. As a result of such spontaneous low-energy excitations (deviations, disturbances, fluctuations), virtual particles are formed, which immediately dissolve in a physical vacuum. This is the lowest (basic) energy state of a moving physical vacuum, its energy is close to zero. But the physical vacuum can for some time in some place go into an excited state, characterized by a certain excess of energy. With such significant, high-energy excitations (deviations, perturbations, fluctuations) of the physical vacuum, virtual particles can complete their appearance and then real fundamental particles of different types break out from the physical vacuum, and, as a rule, in pairs (having an electric charge in the form of a particle and an antiparticle with electric charges of opposite signs, for example, in the form of an electron-positron pair).

Single quantum excitations of various free fundamental fields are fundamental particles.

Fermionic (spinor) fundamental fields can give rise to 24 fermions (6 quarks and 6 antiquarks, as well as 6 leptons and 6 antileptons), which are divided into three generations (families). In the first generation, up and down quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons, an electron and an electron neutrino (and a positron with an electron antineutrino), form ordinary matter (and rarely detectable antimatter). In the second generation, charmed and strange quarks (and antiquarks), which have a higher mass (higher gravitational charge), as well as leptons muons and muonic neutrinos (and an anti-muon with muonic antineutrinos). In the third generation, the true and charming quarks (and antiquarks), as well as the taon leptons and the taon neutrino (and the antitaon with the taon antineutrino). Fermions of the second and third generations do not participate in the formation of ordinary matter, are unstable and decay with the formation of fermions of the first generation.

Bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields can generate 18 types of bosons: gravitational field - gravitons, electromagnetic field - photons, weak interaction field - 3 types of "vions" 1, gluon field - 8 types of gluons, Higgs field - 5 types of Higgs bosons.

The physical vacuum in a sufficiently high-energy (excited) state is capable of generating many fundamental particles with significant energy in the form of a mini-universe.

For the substance of the microworld, the movement is reduced:

to the spread, collision and transformation of elementary particles into each other;

the formation of atomic nuclei from protons and neutrons, their movement, collision and change;

the formation of atoms from atomic nuclei and electrons, their movement, collision and change, including with the jumping of electrons from one atomic orbital to another and their detachment from atoms, the addition of extra electrons;

the formation of molecules from atoms, their movement, collision and change, including with the addition of new atoms, the release of atoms, the replacement of one atoms with others, a change in the order of arrangement of atoms relative to each other in a molecule.

For the substance of the macrocosm and the megaworld, motion is reduced to displacement, collision, deformation, destruction, unification of various bodies, as well as to their most varied changes.

If the movement of a material object (a quantized field or a material object) is accompanied by a change in only its physical properties, for example, frequency or wavelength for a quantized field, instantaneous speed, temperature, electric charge for a material object, then such movement is referred to as a physical form. If the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its chemical properties, for example, solubility, flammability, acidity, then such a movement is referred to as a chemical form. If the movement concerns the change of objects of the megaworld (space objects), then such a movement is referred to as astronomical form. If the movement concerns the changes in the objects of the deep earth's shells (the earth's interior), then such a movement is referred to as a geological form. If the movement concerns a change in the objects of the geographic envelope, which unites all the surface earth envelopes, then such a movement is referred to as a geographic form. The movement of living bodies and their systems in the form of their all kinds of life manifestations is referred to a biological form. The movement of material objects, accompanied by a change in socially significant properties with the obligatory participation of a person, for example, the extraction of iron ore and the production of iron and steel, the cultivation of sugar beets and the production of sugar, are referred to as a socially conditioned form of movement.

The movement of any material object cannot always be attributed to any one form. It is complex and diverse. Even the physical motion inherent in material objects from quantized fields to bodies can include several forms. For example, the elastic collision (collision) of two rigid bodies in the form of billiard balls includes the change in the position of the balls over time relative to each other and the table, and the rotation of the balls, and the friction of the balls against the table surface and air, and the movement of particles of each ball, and practically reversible change in the shape of the balls during elastic collision, and the exchange of kinetic energy with its partial transformation into the internal energy of the balls during elastic collision, and the transfer of heat between the balls, air and the surface of the table, and the possible radioactive decay of nuclei contained in the balls of unstable isotopes, and the penetration of neutrinos cosmic rays through balls, etc. With the development of matter and the emergence of chemical, astronomical, geological, geographic, biological and socially conditioned material objects, the forms of motion become more complex, becoming more and more diverse. Thus, in chemical motion one can see both physical forms of motion and qualitatively new, not reducible to physical, chemical forms. In the movement of astronomical, geological, geographical, biological and socially determined objects, one can see both physical and chemical forms of movement, as well as qualitatively new, not reducible to physical and chemical, respectively astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially conditioned forms of movement. At the same time, the lower forms of motion of matter do not differ for material objects of varying degrees of complexity. For example, the physical movement of elementary particles, atomic nuclei and atoms does not differ in astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially conditioned material objects.

In the study of complex forms of movement, two extremes should be avoided. First, the study of a complex form of movement cannot be reduced to simple forms of movement; a complex form of movement cannot be derived from simple ones. For example, biological movement cannot be derived only from physical and chemical forms of movement, while ignoring the biological forms of movement themselves. And secondly, one cannot limit oneself to studying only complex forms of movement, ignoring simple ones. For example, the study of biological movement complements well the study of the physical and chemical forms of movement that manifest themselves.

2. The ability of matter to self-development

As you know, self-development of matter, and matter is capable of self-development, is characterized by a spontaneous, directed and irreversible step-by-step complication of the forms of moving matter.

The spontaneous self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter occurs by itself, in a natural way, without the participation of any unnatural or supernatural forces, the Creator, due to internal, natural reasons.

The direction of self-development of matter means a kind of canalization of the process of the gradual complication of the forms of moving matter from one of its forms that existed earlier to another form that appeared later: for any new form of moving matter, you can find the previous form of moving matter that gave it a start, and vice versa, for any previous form of moving matter, you can find a new form of moving matter that arose from it. In this case, the always preceding form of moving matter existed before the new form of moving matter that arose from it, the previous form is always older than the new form that emerged from it. Due to the canalization of the self-development of moving matter, a kind of series of gradual complication of its forms appears, showing in which direction, as well as through which intermediate (transitional) forms the historical development of this or that form of moving matter went.

The irreversibility of the self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter cannot go in the opposite direction, backwards: a new form of moving matter cannot give rise to the previous form of moving matter, from which it arose, but it can become a previous form for new forms. And if suddenly any new form of moving matter turns out to be very similar to one of the forms that preceded it, this will not mean that the moving matter began to self-develop in the opposite direction: the previous form of moving matter appeared much earlier, and a new form of moving matter, even and very similar to it, appeared much later and is, although similar, but a fundamentally different form of moving matter.

3. Communication and interaction of material objects

The inalienable properties of matter are communication and interaction, which are the cause of its movement. Since communication and interaction are the cause of the movement of matter, therefore, communication and interaction, like movement, are universal, that is, they are inherent in all material objects, regardless of their nature, origin and complexity. All phenomena in the material world are determined (in the sense, conditioned) by natural material connections and interactions, as well as by the objective laws of nature, reflecting the laws of communication and interaction. "In this sense, there is nothing supernatural and absolutely opposed to matter in the world." 1 Interaction, like motion, is a form of being (existence) of matter.

The existence of all material objects manifests itself in interaction. For any material “object to exist” means to somehow manifest itself in relation to other material objects, interacting with them, being in objective connections and relations with them. If a hypothetical material "object, which would not manifest itself in relation to some other material objects, would not be connected with them, would not interact with them, then it" would not exist for these other material objects. "But our assumption about him, too, could not be based on anything, since due to the lack of interaction, we would have zero information about him." 2

Interaction is a process of mutual influence of some material objects on others with the exchange of energy. The interaction of material objects can be direct, for example, in the form of a collision (collision) of two rigid bodies. Or it can happen at a distance. In this case, the interaction of material objects is provided by the associated bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields. A change in one material object causes excitation (deviation, perturbation, fluctuation) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field associated with it, and this excitation propagates in the form of a wave with a finite speed not exceeding the speed of propagation of light in vacuum (nearly 300 thousand km / with). The interaction of material objects at a distance according to the quantum-field mechanism of the transfer of interaction is of an exchange nature, since the carrier particles transfer the interaction in the form of quanta of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field. Different bosons as particles-carriers of interaction are excitations (deviations, perturbations, fluctuations) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields: during emission and absorption by a material object, they are real, and during propagation, they are virtual.

It turns out that in any case, the interaction of material objects, even at a distance, is short-range, since it is carried out without any breaks, voids.

The interaction of a particle with an antiparticle of a substance is accompanied by their annihilation, i.e., their transformation into the corresponding fermionic (spinor) fundamental field. In this case, their mass (gravitational energy) is converted into the energy of the corresponding fermionic (spinor) fundamental field.

Virtual particles of an excited (deviating, disturbing, “trembling”) physical vacuum can interact with real particles, as if enveloping them, accompanying them in the form of the so-called quantum foam. For example, as a result of the interaction of the electrons of an atom with virtual particles of the physical vacuum, a certain shift of their energy levels in the atoms occurs, while the electrons themselves perform oscillatory movements with a small amplitude.

There are four types of fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong.

"The gravitational interaction is manifested in the mutual attraction ... of material objects having a rest mass" 1, that is, material objects, at any large distances. It is assumed that the excited physical vacuum, which generates many fundamental particles, is capable of manifesting gravitational repulsion. The gravitational interaction is carried by the gravitons of the gravitational field. The gravitational field connects bodies and particles with rest mass. For the propagation of the gravitational field in the form of gravitational waves (virtual gravitons), no medium is required. The gravitational interaction is the weakest in its strength, therefore it is insignificant in the microcosm due to the insignificance of the particle masses, in the macrocosm its manifestation is noticeable and it causes, for example, the fall of bodies to the Earth, and in the megaworld it plays a leading role due to the enormous masses of the bodies of the megaworld and it provides, for example, the rotation of the moon and artificial satellites around the earth; the formation and movement of planets, planetoids, comets and other bodies in the solar system and its integrity; the formation and movement of stars in galaxies - giant stellar systems, including up to hundreds of billions of stars, connected by mutual gravity and common origin, as well as their integrity; the integrity of galaxy clusters - systems of relatively closely spaced galaxies bound by gravitational forces; the integrity of the Metagalaxy - the system of all known clusters of galaxies connected by the forces of gravity, as the studied part of the Universe, the integrity of the entire Universe. The gravitational interaction determines the concentration of matter scattered in the Universe and its inclusion in new development cycles.

"Electromagnetic interaction is caused by electric charges and is transmitted" 1 by photons of the electromagnetic field over any large distances. The electromagnetic field connects bodies and particles that have electric charges. Moreover, stationary electric charges are connected only by the electric component of the electromagnetic field in the form of an electric field, and mobile electric charges are connected by both the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic field. For the propagation of an electromagnetic field in the form of electromagnetic waves, an additional medium is not required, since "a changing magnetic field generates an alternating electric field, which, in turn, is a source of an alternating magnetic field" 2. “Electromagnetic interaction can manifest itself both as attraction (between opposite charges) and as repulsion (between” 3 like charges). The electromagnetic interaction is much stronger than the gravitational one. It manifests itself both in the microcosm and in the macrocosm and megaworld, but the leading role belongs to it in the macrocosm. Electromagnetic interaction ensures the interaction of electrons with nuclei. Interatomic and intermolecular interaction is electromagnetic, thanks to it, for example, molecules exist and the chemical form of motion of matter is carried out, bodies exist and their states of aggregation, elasticity, friction, surface tension of a liquid are determined, vision functions. Thus, electromagnetic interaction ensures the stability of atoms, molecules and macroscopic bodies.

Elementary particles with rest mass participate in weak interaction; it is carried by "vions" of 4 gauge fields. Weak interaction fields bind various elementary particles with rest mass. Weak interaction is much weaker than electromagnetic, but stronger than gravitational. Because of its short-range action, it manifests itself only in the microworld, causing, for example, most of the self-decay of elementary particles (for example, a free neutron self-decays with the participation of a negatively charged gauge boson into a proton, an electron and an electron antineutrino, sometimes a photon is also formed in this case), the interaction of a neutrino with the rest of the substance.

Strong interaction manifests itself in the mutual attraction of hadrons, which include quark structures, for example, two-quark mesons and three-quark nucleons. It is transmitted by gluons of gluon fields. The gluon fields bind the hadrons. This is the strongest interaction, but due to its short-range action it manifests itself only in the microworld, providing, for example, the bond of quarks in nucleons, the bond of nucleons in atomic nuclei, ensuring their stability. The strong interaction is 1000 times stronger than the electromagnetic one and prevents the like charged protons united in the nucleus from scattering. Thermonuclear reactions, in which several nuclei combine into one, are also possible due to strong interactions. Natural thermonuclear reactors are stars that create all chemical elements heavier than hydrogen. Heavy multi-nucleon nuclei become unstable and fission, since their sizes already exceed the distance at which strong interaction is manifested.

"As a result of experimental studies of the interactions of elementary particles ... it was found that at high collision energies of protons - about 100 GeV - ... weak and electromagnetic interactions do not differ - they can be considered as a single electroweak interaction." 1 It is assumed that "at an energy of 10 15 GeV, a strong interaction is added to them, and at" 2 "even" higher energies of particle interaction (up to 10 19 GeV) or at an extremely high temperature of matter, all four fundamental interactions are characterized by the same strength, i.e. represent one interaction "3 in the form of" superpower ". Perhaps such high-energy conditions were at the beginning of the development of the Universe, which emerged from the physical vacuum. In the process of further expansion of the Universe, accompanied by a rapid cooling of the formed matter, the integral interaction was first divided into electroweak, gravitational and strong, and then the electroweak interaction was divided into electromagnetic and weak, i.e., into four fundamentally different interactions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Karpenkov, S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for universities / S. Kh. Karpenkov. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M.: Academic Project, 2002 .-- 368 p.

Concepts of modern natural science [Text]: textbook. for universities / Ed. V.N. Lavrinenko, V.P. Ratnikova. - 3rd ed., Rev. and add. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005 .-- 317 p.

Philosophical problems of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for graduate students and students of Philosophy. and natures. fac. un-tov / Ed. S. T. Melyukhina. - M.: Higher school, 1985 .-- 400 p.

Tsyupka, VP Natural science picture of the world: the concept of modern natural science [Text]: textbook. allowance / V.P. Tsyupka. - Belgorod: IPK NRU "BelGU", 2012. - 144 p.

Tsyupka, VP Concepts of modern physics that make up the modern physical picture of the world [Electronic resource] // Scientific electronic archive of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences: correspondence course. electron. scientific. conf. "Concepts of Modern Natural Science or Natural Science Picture of the World" URL: http: // site / article / 6315(posted: 31.10.2011)

Yandex. Dictionaries. [Electronic resource] URL: http://slovari.yandex.ru/

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science. M. Academic Project. 2002.S. 60.

2Philosophical problems of natural science. M. High school. 1985.S. 181.

3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 60.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 79.

1Karpenkov S. Kh.

1Philosophical Problems of Natural Science ... p. 178.

2Ibid. P. 191.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 67.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 68.

3Philosophical Problems of Natural Science ... p. 195.

4Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 69.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 70.

2Concepts of modern natural science. M. UNITY-DANA. 2005.S. 119.

3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... p. 71.

Tsyupka V.P. ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF MOTION OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY FOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO CONNECTION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE // Scientific Electronic Archive.
URL: (date of access: 17.03.2020).

leptons - do not participate in strong interactions.

electron... positron. muon.

neutrino is a light neutral particle participating only in weak and gravitational

interaction.

neutrino (#flow).

carriers of interactions:

photon - a quantum of light, a carrier of electromagnetic interaction.

gluon is a carrier of strong interaction.

intermediate vector bosons - carriers of weak interaction;

particles with integer spin.

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Until relatively recently, several hundred particles and antiparticles were considered elementary. A detailed study of their properties and interactions with other particles and the development of the theory showed that most of them are not actually elementary, since they themselves consist of the simplest or, as they say now, fundamental particles. Fundamental particles themselves are no longer composed of anything. Numerous experiments have shown that all fundamental particles behave like dimensionless point objects that do not have an internal structure, at least up to the smallest distances studied now, ~ 10 -16 cm.

Among the countless and diverse processes of interaction between particles, there are four basic or fundamental interactions: strong (nuclear), electromagnetic, weak and gravitational. In the world of particles, the gravitational interaction is very weak, its role is still unclear, and we will not talk about it further.

There are two groups of particles in nature: hadrons, which participate in all fundamental interactions, and leptons, which do not participate only in strong interactions.

According to modern concepts, interactions between particles are carried out through the emission and subsequent absorption of quanta of the corresponding field (strong, weak, electromagnetic) surrounding the particle. Such quanta are gauge bosons which are also fundamental particles. Bosons have their own angular momentum called spin is equal to integer value Planck's constant... The quanta of the field and, accordingly, the carriers of the strong interaction are gluons, denoted by the symbol g (gi), the quanta of the electromagnetic field are the quanta of light well known to us - photons, denoted by (gamma), and the quanta of the weak field and, accordingly, the carriers of weak interactions are W± (double ve) - and Z 0 (zet zero) bosons.

Unlike bosons, all other fundamental particles are fermions, that is, particles with a half-integer spin value equal to h/2.

Table 1 shows the symbols of fundamental fermions - leptons and quarks.

Each particle shown in table. 1, corresponds to an antiparticle, which differs from a particle only in the signs of the electric charge and other quantum numbers (see Table 2) and the direction of the spin relative to the direction of the particle momentum. We will denote antiparticles by the same symbols as particles, but with a wavy line above the symbol.

Particles in the table. 1 are designated by Greek and Latin letters, namely: letter (nu) - three different neutrinos, letters e - electron, (mu) - muon, (tau) - taon, letters u, c, t, d, s, b denote quarks ; their names and characteristics are given in table. 2.

Particles in the table. 1 are grouped into three generations I, II and III in accordance with the structure of modern theory. Our Universe is built of first generation particles - leptons and quarks and gauge bosons, but, as the modern science of the development of the Universe shows, at the initial stage of its development, particles of all three generations played an important role.

Leptons	Quarks
I II III e	I II III u d c s t b

Leptons

Let us first consider in more detail the properties of leptons. The top line of the table. 1 contains three different neutrinos: electron, muonic and tau neutrinos. Their mass has not yet been accurately measured, but its upper limit has been determined, for example, for ne equal to 10 -5 of the value of the electron mass (that is, g).

Looking at the table. 1 involuntarily the question arises as to why nature needed the creation of three different neutrinos. There is no answer to this question yet, because such a comprehensive theory of fundamental particles has not been created that would indicate the necessity and sufficiency of all such particles and would describe their basic properties. Perhaps this problem will be resolved in the 21st century (or later).

The bottom line of the table. 1 begins with the particle we have most studied, the electron. The electron was discovered at the end of the last century by the English physicist J. Thomson. The role of electrons in our world is enormous. They are those negatively charged particles that, together with atomic nuclei, form all the atoms of the elements we know. Periodic table of Mendeleev... In each atom, the number of electrons is exactly equal to the number of protons in the atomic nucleus, which makes the atom electrically neutral.

The electron is stable, the main possibility of annihilation of an electron is its death upon collision with an antiparticle - the positron e +. This process was named annihilation :

.

As a result of annihilation, two gamma quanta are formed (this is how high-energy photons are called), which carry away both the rest energies e + and e - and their kinetic energies. At high energies e + and e - hadrons and quark pairs are formed (see, for example, (5) and Fig. 4).

Reaction (1) clearly illustrates the validity of the famous formula of A. Einstein about the equivalence of mass and energy: E = mc 2 .

Indeed, during the annihilation of a positron and an electron at rest in the substance, the entire mass of their rest (equal to 1.22 MeV) is converted into the energy of quanta that have no rest mass.

In the second generation, the bottom line of the table. 1 located muon- a particle that, in all its properties, is analogous to an electron, but with an abnormally large mass. The mass of a muon is 207 times the mass of an electron. Unlike an electron, a muon is unstable. The time of his life t= 2.2 · 10 -6 s. A muon predominantly decays into an electron and two neutrinos according to the scheme

An even heavier analogue of the electron is. Its mass is more than 3 thousand times the mass of an electron (MeV / s 2), that is, taon is heavier than a proton and a neutron. Its lifetime is 2.9 · 10 -13 s, and of more than one hundred different schemes (channels) of its decay, the following are possible.

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