For an outside observer (for example, a European) that the Persians and the Arabs are about the same: both are Muslims of varying degrees of swarthiness, speaking an incomprehensible language. Is this really so? Of course no. There is a huge difference between Arabs and Persians - both in language and culture, and even (to the surprise of many) in religion. How do Persians differ from Arabs, and what do they have in common? Let's start in order.

Appearance on the historical stage

The Persians were the first to show themselves as active participants in international events. Almost 300 years passed from the first mention in the Assyrian chronicles in 836 BC to the creation of an independent Persian state, and a little later - the Achaemenid empire. Actually, the Persian state was not purely national in ancient times. Residents of one of the regions of the Median Empire, close to them in language and culture, the Persians, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, rebelled and made a change of power, later conquering vast territories that were not part of the Medes. According to some historians, the Achaemenid state at its highest prosperity numbered 50 million people - about half of the world's population at that time.

The Arabs, who originally lived in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula, begin to be mentioned in historical sources at about the same time as the Persians, but they do not participate in military or cultural expansion. The Arab states of South Arabia (Sabaean Kingdom) and Northern Arabia (Palmyra, Nabatea and others) live mainly on trade. Palmyra, which decided to stand in opposition to the Roman Empire, was rather easily defeated by the proud Quirites. But the situation radically changes when Muhammad is born in the commercial city of Mecca.

He creates the youngest monotheistic religion, whose adherents have built one of the largest states of all time - the Arab Caliphate. The Arabs fully or partially assimilated a large number of different peoples, mainly those that were below their level of social and cultural development. The new religion - Islam - and the Arabic language became the basis for assimilation. The fact is that, according to Muslim teachings, the holy book, the Koran, is only the original, written in Arabic, and all translations are considered only interpretations. This forced all Muslims to learn Arabic and often led to the loss of national identity (in particular, this happened with the ancient Libyans and Syrians, who were previously separate peoples; now their descendants are considered Arab sub-ethnic groups).

The difference between Persians and Arabs is that in the 7th century AD, Persia was in decline, and the Arabs conquered it relatively easily, establishing Islam. The new religion was superimposed on an ancient rich culture, and Persia of the 8th century AD became the basis for the so-called Golden Age of Islam. During this period, science and culture were actively developing. Later, the Persians adopted Shiism as a state religion, one of the directions of Islam, opposing themselves to the Arabs and Turks - mainly Sunnis. And today Iran - the successor of ancient Persia - remains the main stronghold of Shiism.

Today, the Persians, in addition to Shiism, profess Sunnism and the ancient religion - Zoroastrianism. A Zoroastrian, for example, was the famous rock singer Freddie Mercury. The Arabs, being mostly Sunnis, partially adhere to Shiism (part of the population of Syria, most of the inhabitants of Iraq and Bahrain). In addition, some of the Arabs remained faithful to Christianity, which was once widespread in the territory later conquered by the Muslims. The famous Latin American singer Shakira comes from a family of Christian Arabs.

Comparison

As is often the case in history, religious differences were the result of political and military confrontation between different states. In religion, it is easier to consolidate dogmas that clearly distinguish "us, ours" from "them, strangers." This happened in the case of Persia: Shiism has a number of serious theological differences from Sunni Islam. Sunnis and Shiites fought with each other no less enthusiastically than Catholics with Protestants in their modern Europe: for example, in 1501 Persia adopted Shiism, and already in 1514 the first war began with the Sunni Ottoman Empire, which extended its influence over most of the Arab territories ...

As for the language, then the Persians and the Arabs have nothing in common. Arabic belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afrasian language family, and its closest "relative" is Hebrew, the state language of Israel. The similarity can be seen even by a layman. For example, the well-known Arabic greeting "salam aleikum" and "shalom aleichem" in Hebrew are clearly consonant and translated in the same way - "peace be upon you."

It is incorrect to speak of a single Persian language, since, according to modern concepts, it is a linguistic group consisting of four related languages ​​(however, some linguists still consider them to be dialects):

• Farsi, or the Persian language proper;
• Pashto;
• Dari (together with Pashto, it is one of the official languages ​​of Afghanistan);
• Tajik.

The following fact is widely known: during the war in Afghanistan, the Soviet command often used Tajik fighters to communicate with local residents, since their language is almost identical to Tajik. Whether in this case Pashto, Dari and Tajik are considered separate languages ​​or only dialects is a subject of linguistic controversy. The native speakers themselves do not discuss this especially, understanding each other perfectly.

table

In a concentrated form, information about the difference between Persians and Arabs is presented in the table below. Determining the number of Persians depends on who is considered Persians (this is not such a simple question as it seems at first glance).

In the middle of the VI century. BC NS. the Persians entered the arena of world history - a mysterious tribe, about which the previously civilized peoples of the Middle East knew only by hearsay.

About morals and customs ancient persians known from the writings of the peoples who lived next to them. In addition to mighty growth and physical development, the Persians had a will that was hardened in the struggle against the harsh climate and the dangers of nomadic life in the mountains and steppes. At that time, they were famous for their moderate lifestyle, temperance, strength, courage and solidarity.

According to Herodotus, Persians wore clothes made of animal skins and felt tiaras (caps), did not use wine, ate not as much as they wanted, but as much as they had. They were indifferent to silver and gold.

Simplicity and modesty in food and clothing remained one of the main virtues even during the domination of the Persians over, when they began to dress in luxurious Median outfits, wear gold necklaces and bracelets, when fresh fish from distant seas were delivered to the table of Persian kings and nobles. fruits from Babylonia and Syria. Even then, during the ceremony of coronation of the Persian kings, the coming to the throne Achaemenid had to put on the clothes that he wore without being a king, eat some dried figs and drink a cup of sour milk.

The ancient Persians were allowed to have many wives, as well as concubines, to marry close relatives, such as nieces and half-sisters. Ancient Persian customs forbade women to show themselves to strangers (among the numerous reliefs in Persepolis there is not a single female image). The ancient historian Plutarch wrote that the Persians were characterized by wild jealousy not only towards their wives. They even kept the slaves and concubines locked up so that outsiders would not see them, and carried them in closed carts.

History of ancient Persia

The Persian king Cyrus II from the Achaemenid clan conquered Media and many other countries in a short time and had a huge and well-armed army, which began to prepare for a campaign against Babylonia. A new force appeared in Southwest Asia, which managed in a short time - in just a few decades- completely change the political map of the Middle East.

Babylonia and Egypt abandoned a long-term hostile policy towards each other, for the rulers of both countries were well aware of the need to prepare for a war with the Persian Empire. The beginning of the war was only a matter of time.

The campaign against the Persians began in 539 BC. NS. Decisive battle between the Persians and the Babylonians happened near the city of Opis on the Tigris River. Cyrus won a complete victory here, soon his troops took the well-fortified city of Sippar, and the Persians captured Babylon without a fight.

After that, the eyes of the Persian ruler turned to the East, where for several years he waged an exhausting war with nomadic tribes and where he eventually died in 530 BC. NS.

Cyrus' successors, Cambyses and Darius, completed the work he had begun. in 524-523 BC NS. the campaign of Cambyses to Egypt took place, as a result of which the power of the Achaemenids was established on the banks of the Nile. became one of the satrapies of the new empire. Darius continued to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the empire. By the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 485 BC. e., the Persian state dominated on a huge territory from the Aegean Sea in the west to India in the east and from the deserts of Central Asia in the north to the rapids of the Nile in the south. The Achaemenids (Persians) united almost the entire civilized world known to them and owned it until the 4th century. BC e., when their state was broken and conquered by the military leader's genius of Alexander the Great.

Chronology of the rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty:

• Achaemen, 600s BC.
• Teispes, 600s BC
• Cyrus I, 640 - 580 BC.
• Cambyses I, 580 - 559 BC.
• Cyrus II the Great, 559 - 530 BC.
• Cambyses II, 530 - 522 BC
• Bardia, 522 BC
• Darius I, 522 - 486 BC
• Xerxes I, 485 - 465 BC
• Artaxerxes I, 465 - 424 BC
• Xerxes II, 424 BC
• Sekudian, 424 - 423 BC
• Darius II, 423 - 404 BC
• Artaxerxes II, 404 - 358 BC
• Artaxerxes III, 358 - 338 BC
• Artaxerxes IV Arses, 338 - 336 BC
• Darius III, 336 - 330 BC
• Artaxerxes V Bessus, 330 - 329 BC

Persian Empire Map

The Aryan tribes - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. Itself the word "Iran" is the modern form of the name "Ariana", ie. the land of the Aryans... Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic herders who fought in war chariots. Some of the Aryans migrated even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained to roam in Central Asia and the northern steppes - the Saki, Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, settling on the fertile lands of the Iranian highlands, gradually abandoned their nomadic life, took up agriculture, adopting skills. It reached a high level already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC NS. Iranian craft. Its monument is the famous "Luristan bronzes" - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and really existing animals.

"Luristan Bronzes"- a cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in the immediate neighborhood and confrontation, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms were formed. The first of them increased Medes(in the northwest of Iran). The Medes kings participated in the destruction of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written records. But the Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC NS. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatana, has not yet been found. It is only known that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, two Median fortresses already explored by archaeologists from the times of the struggle with Assyria speak of a rather high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. NS. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subordinate Persian tribe from the Achaemenid clan, rebelled against the Medes. In 550 BC. NS. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world... In 546 BC. NS. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. NS. fell. The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered, and under Tsar Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. NS. Persian Power reached the greatest expansion and flowering.

Monuments of her greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best studied monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of these is Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus.

Sassanian revival - Sassanian state

In 331-330. BC NS. the famous conqueror Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire. In revenge for Athens, once devastated by the Persians, the Greek Macedonian soldiers brutally plundered and burned Persepolis. The Achaemenid dynasty ended. The period of Greco-Macedonian rule over the East began, which is usually called the era of Hellenism.

For the Iranians, the conquest was a disaster. Power over all neighbors was replaced by humiliated submission to old enemies - the Greeks. The traditions of Iranian culture, already shaken by the desire of kings and nobles to imitate the vanquished in luxury, were now finally trampled upon. Little changed after the liberation of the country by the nomadic Iranian tribe of the Parthians. The Parthians expelled the Greeks from Iran in the II century. BC e., but they themselves borrowed a lot from Greek culture. The Greek language is still used on the coins and inscriptions of their kings. Temples are still being erected with numerous statues, according to Greek models, which seemed to many Iranians blasphemy. Zarathushtra in ancient times forbade the worship of idols, commanding to honor the inextinguishable flame as a symbol of the deity and offer sacrifices to it. It was the religious humiliation that was the greatest, and it was not for nothing that the cities erected by the Greek conquerors were later called "the structures of the Dragon" in Iran.

In 226 A.D. NS. the rebel ruler of Pars, bearing the ancient royal name Ardashir (Artaxerxes), overthrew the Parthian dynasty. The story of the second began Persian Empire - Sassanid powers, the dynasty to which the winner belonged.

The Sassanids sought to revive the culture of ancient Iran. The very history of the Achaemenid state by that time had become a vague legend. So the society that was described in the legends of the Zoroastrian priests-mobed was put forward as an ideal. The Sassanids built, in fact, a culture that had never existed in the past, thoroughly imbued with a religious idea. This had little to do with the era of the Achaemenids, who willingly adopted the customs of the conquered tribes.

Under the Sassanids, the Iranian decisively triumphed over the Hellenic. Greek temples disappear completely, the Greek language is no longer in official use. The broken statues of Zeus (who was identified with Ahura Mazda under the Parthians) are being replaced by faceless fire altars. Naqsh-i-Rustem is decorated with new reliefs and inscriptions. In the III century. the second Sassanian king Shapur I ordered to carve his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian on the rocks. On the reliefs of the kings, a bird-like farn overshadows - a sign of divine protection.

Capital of Persia became the city of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians near the emptying Babylon. Under the Sassanids, new palace complexes were built in Ctesiphon and huge (up to 120 hectares) royal parks were laid out. The most famous of the Sassanian palaces is Tak-i-Kisra, the palace of King Khosrov I, who ruled in the 6th century. Along with the monumental reliefs, the palaces were now adorned with fine carved ornamentation over a lime mixture.

Under the Sassanids, the irrigation system of Iranian and Mesopotamian lands was improved. In the VI century. the country was covered by a network of carises (underground water pipelines with clay pipes), stretching up to 40 km. The caries were cleaned through special wells dug every 10 m. The caries served for a long time and ensured the rapid development of agriculture in Iran during the Sassanid era. It was then that cotton and sugarcane began to be grown in Iran, and horticulture and winemaking developed. At the same time, Iran became one of the suppliers of its own fabrics - both woolen and linen and silk.

Sassanian state was much less Achaemenid, covered only Iran itself, part of the lands of Central Asia, the territory of present-day Iraq, Armenia and Azerbaijan. She had to struggle for a long time, first with Rome, then with the Byzantine Empire. Despite all this, the Sassanids held out longer than the Achaemenids - more than four centuries... Ultimately, the state, exhausted by continuous wars in the west, was engulfed in a power struggle. This was taken advantage of by the Arabs, who carried by force of arms a new faith - Islam. In 633-651. after a fierce war, they conquered Persia. So it was over with the ancient Persian state and ancient Iranian culture.

Persian control system

The ancient Greeks, familiar with the organization of state administration in the Achaemenid empire, admired the wisdom and foresight of the Persian kings. In their opinion, this organization was the pinnacle of the development of the monarchical form of government.

The Persian kingdom was divided into large provinces, called satrapies after the title of their rulers - satraps (Persian, "kshatra-pavan" - "guardian of the region"). Usually there were 20 of them, but this number fluctuated, since sometimes the management of two or more satrapies was entrusted to one person and, conversely, one area was divided into several. This pursued mainly the purposes of taxation, but sometimes the peculiarities of the peoples inhabiting them and historical characteristics were also taken into account. The satraps and rulers of the smaller regions were not the only representatives of local government. In addition to them, in many provinces there were hereditary local kings or sovereign priests, as well as free cities and, finally, "benefactors" who received cities and districts for life, or even hereditary possession. These kings, rulers and high priests in their position differed from the satraps only in that they were hereditary and had a historical and national connection with the population, who saw them as carriers of ancient traditions. They independently exercised internal government, preserved local law, a system of measures, language, imposed taxes and duties, but were under the constant control of satraps, who could often intervene in the affairs of the regions, especially during unrest and unrest. Satraps also resolved border disputes between cities and regions, litigation in cases when the participants were citizens of different urban communities or different vassal regions, regulated political relations. Local rulers, like the satraps, had the right to directly communicate with the central government, and some of them, such as the kings of the Phoenician cities, Cilicia, Greek tyrants, maintained their army and navy, which they personally commanded, accompanying the Persian army on large campaigns or performing military orders of the king. However, the satrap could at any time demand these troops for the tsarist service, put his garrison in the possessions of local rulers. The main command over the troops of the province also belonged to him. The satrap was even allowed to recruit soldiers and mercenaries on his own and at his own expense. He was, as it would have been called in an era closer to us, the governor-general of his satrapy, ensuring its internal and external security.

The supreme command of the troops was carried out by the chiefs of four or, as during the subjugation of Egypt, five military districts into which the kingdom was divided.

Persian control system gives an example of the amazing respect by the winners of local customs and the rights of the conquered peoples. In Babylonia, for example, all documents of the times of Persian rule in legal terms do not differ from those related to the period of independence. It was the same in Egypt and Judea. In Egypt, the Persians left the same not only the division into nomes, but also the sovereign surnames, the disposition of troops and garrisons, as well as the tax inviolability of temples and the priesthood. Of course, the central government and the satrap could intervene at any time and decide matters at their own discretion, but for the most part it was enough for them if the country was calm, the taxes were proceeding regularly, the troops were in order.

Such a control system did not take shape in the Middle East overnight. For example, initially in the conquered territories, it relied only on force of arms and intimidation. The regions taken "with battle" were included directly in the House of Ashur - the central region. Those who surrendered at the mercy of the victor often retained their local dynasty. But over time, this system turned out to be poorly suited for managing the growing state. Reorganization of management, carried out by King Tiglathpalasar III in CNT c. BC e., in addition to the policy of forced relocations, and changed the management system of the regions of the empire. The kings tried to prevent the emergence of overly powerful families. To prevent the creation of hereditary possessions and new dynasties among the rulers of the regions, to the most important posts often appointed eunuchs... In addition, although large officials received huge land holdings, they did not form a single array, but were scattered throughout the country.

But still, the main support of Assyrian rule, as well as Babylonian later, was the army. Military garrisons literally girdled the entire country. Taking into account the experience of their predecessors, the Achaemenids added to the power of arms the idea of ​​a "kingdom of countries", that is, a reasonable combination of local peculiarities with the interests of the central government.

The vast state needed the means of communication needed to control the central government over local officials and rulers. The language of the Persian chancellery, in which even royal decrees were issued, was Aramaic. This is due to the fact that in fact it was in common use in Assyria and Babylonia even in Assyrian times. The conquests by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings of the western regions, Syria and Palestine, further contributed to its spread. This language gradually took the place of the ancient Akkadian cuneiform in international relations; it was even used on the coins of the Asia Minor satraps of the Persian king.

Another feature of the Persian Empire that admired the Greeks there were wonderful roads, described by Herodotus and Xenophon in stories about the campaigns of King Cyrus. The most famous were the so-called Royal, which went from Ephesus in Asia Minor, off the coast of the Aegean Sea, to the east - to Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian state, through the Euphrates, Armenia and Assyria along the Tigris River; the road leading from Babylonia through the Zagros mountains to the east to the other capital of Persia - Ecbatana, and from here to the Bactrian and Indian border; the road from the Isa Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea to Sinop on the Black Sea, crossing Asia Minor, etc.

These roads were not only laid by the Persians. Most of them existed in Assyrian and even earlier times. The beginning of the construction of the Royal Road, which was the main artery of the Persian monarchy, probably dates back to the era of the Hittite kingdom, located in Asia Minor on the way from Mesopotamia and Syria to Europe. Sardis, the capital of Lydia, conquered by the Medes, was connected by a road with another large city - Pteria. From him the road went to the Euphrates. Herodotus, speaking of the Lydians, calls them the first shopkeepers, which was natural for the owners of the road between Europe and Babylon. The Persians continued this path from Babylonia further east, to their capitals, improved it and adapted it not only for trade purposes, but also for state needs - mail.

The Persian kingdom also took advantage of another invention of the Lydians - the coin. Until the VII century. BC NS. throughout the East, a natural economy dominated, money circulation was just beginning to emerge: the role of money was played by metal ingots of a certain weight and shape. These could be rings, plates, mugs without embossing and images. The weight was different everywhere, and therefore, outside the place of origin, the ingot simply lost its value as a coin and had to be weighed again each time, that is, it was made an ordinary commodity. On the border between Europe and Asia, the Lydian kings were the first to go over to the minting of a state coin of a clearly defined weight and value. Hence the use of such coins spread throughout Asia Minor, to Cyprus and Palestine. The ancient trading countries -, and - kept the old system for a very long time. They began to mint coins after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and before that they used coins made in Asia Minor.

Establishing a unified tax system, the Persian kings could not do without minting coins; in addition, the needs of the state that held mercenaries, as well as the unprecedented flourishing of international trade, caused the need for a single coin. And a gold coin was introduced into the kingdom, and only the government had the right to mint it; local rulers, cities and satraps for payment to mercenaries received the right to mint only silver and copper coins, which outside their area remained an ordinary commodity.

So, by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. NS. in the Middle East, through the efforts of many generations and many peoples, a civilization arose, which even freedom-loving Greeks was considered ideal... Here is what the ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote: “Wherever the king lives, wherever he goes, he makes sure that everywhere there are gardens called paradis, full of everything beautiful and good that the earth can produce. In them he spends most of the time, if the season does not interfere with this ... Some say that when the king gives gifts, first those who distinguished themselves in the war are called, for it is useless to plow a lot if there is no one to protect, and then - those who cultivate the land in the best way. for the strong could not exist if it were not for those who process ... ".

It is not surprising that this civilization developed precisely in Western Asia. She not only arose earlier than others, but also developed faster and more energetically, had the most favorable conditions for its development thanks to constant contacts with neighbors and the exchange of innovations. Here, more often than in other ancient centers of world culture, new ideas arose and important discoveries were made in almost all areas of production and culture. Potter's wheel and wheel, making bronze and iron, war chariot as fundamentally new means of warfare, various forms of writing from pictograms to the alphabet - all this and much more genetically goes back precisely to Western Asia, from where these innovations spread throughout the rest of the world, including other centers of primary civilization.

The Persian Empire had a huge impact on the history of the Ancient World. Formed by a small tribal union, the Achaemenid state existed for about two hundred years. There is a mention of the splendor and power of the country of the Persians in many ancient sources, including the Bible.

Start

For the first time, mention of the Persians is found in Assyrian sources. In an inscription dated to the 9th century BC. e., contains the name of the land of Parsua. Geographically, this area was located in the Central Zagros region, and during the mentioned period the population of this area paid tribute to the Assyrians. The unification of the tribes did not yet exist. Assyrians mention 27 kingdoms under their control. In the VII century. The Persians, apparently, entered into a tribal union, since references to kings from the Achaemenid tribe appeared in the sources. The history of the Persian state begins in 646 BC, when Cyrus I. became the ruler of the Persians.

During the reign of Cyrus I, the Persians significantly expanded the territories under their control, including taking possession of most of the Iranian plateau. At the same time, the first capital of the Persian state, the city of Pasargadae, was founded. Some of the Persians were engaged in agriculture, some led

The emergence of the Persian state

At the end of the VI century. BC NS. the Persian people were ruled by Cambyses I, who was dependent on the kings of Media. The son of Cambyses, Cyrus II, became the ruler of the settled Persians. Information about the ancient Persian people is scarce and fragmentary. Apparently, the main unit of society was the patriarchal family, headed by a man who had the right to dispose of the life and property of his loved ones. The community, first tribal and later rural, was a powerful force for several centuries. Several communities formed a tribe, several tribes could already be called a people.

The emergence of the Persian state came at a time when the entire Middle East was divided between four states: Egypt, Media, Lydia, Babylonia.

Even in the era of its heyday, Media was actually a fragile tribal union. Thanks to the victories of the king Kiaksar of Media, the state of Urartu and the ancient country of Elam were subdued. The descendants of Kiaxar could not hold back the conquests of their great ancestor. The constant war with Babylon required the presence of troops on the border. This weakened the internal policy of Media, which the vassals of the Medes king took advantage of.

The reign of Cyrus II

In 553, Cyrus II raised a revolt against the Medes, to whom the Persians paid tribute for several centuries. The war lasted three years and ended in a crushing defeat for the Medes. The capital of Media (Ektabana) became one of the residences of the Persian ruler. Having conquered the ancient country, Cyrus II formally preserved the Median kingdom and assumed the titles of the Median rulers. This is how the formation of the Persian state began.

After the capture of Media, Persia declared itself as a new state in world history, and for two centuries played an important role in the events taking place in the Middle East. In 549-548. the newly formed state conquered Elam and subjugated a number of countries that were part of the former Median state. Parthia, Armenia, Hyrcania began to pay tribute to the new Persian rulers.

War with Lydia

Croesus, the ruler of the powerful Lydia, realized what a dangerous enemy the Persian state was. A number of alliances were concluded with Egypt and Sparta. However, the allies did not manage to start full-scale military actions. Croesus did not want to wait for help and marched alone against the Persians. In the decisive battle near the capital of Lydia, the city of Sardis, Croesus brought his cavalry, which was considered invincible, to the battlefield. Cyrus II set up the warriors astride camels. The horses, seeing unknown animals, refused to obey the riders, the Lydian horsemen were forced to fight on foot. The unequal battle ended with the retreat of the Lydians, after which the city of Sardis was besieged by the Persians. Of the former allies, only the Spartans decided to come to the aid of Croesus. But, while the campaign was being prepared, the city of Sardis fell, and the Persians subjugated Lydia.

Expanding boundaries

Then came the turn of the Greek policies, which were on the territory.After a number of major victories and the suppression of rebellions, the Persians subjugated the policies, thereby acquiring the opportunity to use them in battles

At the end of the 6th century, the Persian state expanded its borders to the northwestern regions of India, to the cordons of the Hindu Kush and subdued the tribes living in the basin of the river. Syr Darya. Only after strengthening the borders, suppressing rebellions and establishing royal power, Cyrus II drew attention to the mighty Babylonia. On October 20, 539, the city fell, and Cyrus II became the official ruler of Babylon, and at the same time the ruler of one of the largest powers of the Ancient World - the Persian kingdom.

Board of Cambyses

Cyrus died in battle with the Massagetae in 530 BC. NS. His son Kambiz successfully pursued his policy. After a thorough preliminary diplomatic preparation, Egypt, the next enemy of Persia, found itself completely alone and could not count on the support of the allies. Cambyses fulfilled his father's plan and conquered Egypt in 522 BC. NS. Meanwhile, in Persia itself, discontent was ripening and a rebellion broke out. Kambiz hurried home and died on the road under mysterious circumstances. After some time, the ancient Persian state provided an opportunity to gain power to the representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenids - Darius Gistaspus.

The beginning of the reign of Darius

The seizure of power by Darius I caused discontent and murmur in enslaved Babylonia. The leader of the rebels declared himself the son of the last Babylonian ruler and began to be called Nebuchadnezzar III. In December 522 BC. NS. Darius I won. The rebel leaders were put to death in public.

Punitive actions distracted Darius, and in the meantime, revolts arose in Media, Elam, Parthia and other areas. It took the new ruler more than a year to pacify the country and restore the state of Cyrus II and Cambyses within its former borders.

Between 518 and 512, the Persian Empire conquered Macedonia, Thrace and parts of India. This time is considered the heyday of the ancient kingdom of the Persians. The state of world importance united dozens of countries and hundreds of tribes and peoples under its rule.

The social structure of Ancient Persia. Darius' reforms

The Persian state of the Achaemenids was distinguished by a wide variety of social structures and customs. Babylonia, Syria, Egypt long before Persia were considered highly developed states, and the recently conquered tribes of nomads of Scythian and Arab origin were still at the stage of a primitive way of life.

Chain of uprisings 522-520 showed the ineffectiveness of the previous government scheme. Therefore, Darius I carried out a number of administrative reforms and created a stable system of state control over the conquered peoples. The result of the reforms was the first ever effective administrative system, which served the Achaemenid rulers for more than one generation.

An effective administrative apparatus is a clear example of how Darius ruled the Persian state. The country was divided into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. The sizes of the satrapies were much larger than the territories of the early states, and in some cases coincided with the ethnographic boundaries of the ancient peoples. For example, the satrapy Egypt geographically almost completely coincided with the borders of this state before its conquest by the Persians. The districts were headed by state officials - satraps. Unlike his predecessors, who were looking for their governors among the nobility of the conquered peoples, Darius I put in these positions exclusively nobles of Persian origin.

Functions of governors

Previously, the governor combined both administrative and civil functions. The satrap of the time of Darius had only civilian powers, the military authorities did not obey him. Satraps had the right to mint coins, were in charge of the country's economic activities, tax collection, and judged. In peacetime, the satraps were provided with a small bodyguard. The army was subject exclusively to military leaders, independent of the satraps.

The implementation of state reforms led to the creation of a large central administrative apparatus headed by the tsarist chancellery. State administration was led by the capital of the Persian state - the city of Susa. The large cities of that time Babylon, Ektabana, Memphis also had their own offices.

Satraps and officials were under the vigilant control of the secret police. In ancient sources, it was called "the ears and eye of the king." The control and supervision of officials was entrusted to the Hazarapat, the leader of the thousand. State correspondence was carried on which was owned by almost all the peoples of Persia.

Culture of the Persian state

Ancient Persia left a great architectural heritage to descendants. The magnificent palace complexes in Susa, Persepolis and Pasargadae made a stunning impression on contemporaries. The royal estates were surrounded by gardens and parks. One of the monuments that have survived to this day is the tomb of Cyrus II. Many similar monuments, which appeared hundreds of years later, took as a basis the architecture of the tomb of the Persian king. The culture of the Persian state contributed to the glorification of the king and the strengthening of the royal power among the conquered peoples.

The art of ancient Persia combined the artistic traditions of the Iranian tribes, intertwined with elements of the Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian cultures. Among the objects that have come down to descendants, there are many ornaments, bowls and vases, various cups decorated with exquisite paintings. A special place in the finds is occupied by numerous seals with images of kings and heroes, as well as various animals and fantastic creatures.

Economic development of Persia during the time of Darius

The nobility occupied a special position in the Persian kingdom. The nobles owned large land holdings in all the conquered territories. Huge plots were placed at the disposal of the "benefactors" of the tsar for personal services to him. The owners of such lands had the right to manage, transfer allotments to their descendants, and they were also entrusted with the exercise of judicial power over their subjects. The land use system was widely used, in which the plots were called allotments for a horse, bow, chariot, etc. The king distributed such lands to his soldiers, for which their owners had to serve in the army as horsemen, archers, charioteers.

But still huge tracts of land were in the direct possession of the king himself. They were usually rented out. The products of agriculture and cattle breeding were accepted as payment for them.

In addition to the lands, the canals were in the immediate tsarist power. The managers of the royal property rented them out and collected taxes for the use of water. For irrigation of fertile soils, a fee was charged, reaching 1/3 of the landowner's harvest.

Manpower of Persia

Slave labor was used in all sectors of the economy. The bulk of them were usually prisoners of war. Collateral slavery, when people sold themselves, did not spread. Slaves had a number of privileges, for example, the right to have their own seals and participate in various transactions as full partners. A slave could redeem himself by paying a certain quota, and also be a plaintiff, witness or defendant in legal proceedings, of course, not against his masters. The practice of hiring hired workers for a certain amount of money was widespread. The labor of such workers became especially widespread in Babylonia, where they dug canals, arranged roads, and reaped crops from royal or temple fields.

Darius's financial policy

The main source of income for the treasury was taxes. In 519, the king approved the main system of state taxes. Taxes were calculated for each satrapy, taking into account its territory and land fertility. The Persians, as a nation-conqueror, did not pay monetary tax, but they were not exempt from tax in kind.

Various monetary units that continued to exist even after the unification of the country brought a lot of inconvenience, therefore in 517 BC. NS. the king introduced a new gold coin called the darik. The medium of exchange was a silver shekle, which cost 1/20 of a gift and served at that time. On the reverse of both coins there was an image of Darius I.

Transport highways of the Persian state

The spread of the road network facilitated the development of trade between the various satrapies. The royal road of the Persian state began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and passed through Babylon, and from there - to Susa and Persepolis. The sea routes laid by the Greeks were successfully used by the Persians in trade and for the transfer of military power.

The sea expeditions of the ancient Persians are also known, for example, the journey of the sailor Skilaka to the Indian shores in 518 BC. NS.

You don't have to go very far to find out who the ancient Persians considered themselves to be. "I, Darius, a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan with Aryan roots ..." says their famous leader, who ruled in 521 - 486 BC ( see on the left - an image of a Persian warrior from the time of Darius I on glazed brick, which is kept in the Louvre, Paris. Pay attention to eye color; click on the picture to enlarge the image).
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The descendants of the Persians - modern Iranians, despite their Islam, also remember well who their ancestors were. For example, an article about the history of this country, posted on the websites of Iranian embassies abroad, usually begins with the words: " Iran is the oldest Aryan civilization ...“And perhaps everyone agrees with this - even the most ill-wisher of Iran.
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However, among us, the Slavs, who, unlike the overwhelming majority of other peoples, before this civilization, according to genetic science, are most directly related, such a statement can only cause, at best, distrust - they say, well, which of them, these dark-skinned Muslims, Aryans. And in our own involvement in the omnipotent ancient Persians is somehow hard to believe. For a thousand years, we were so intensely burned out with religious napalm and zombified that today not everyone can believe that we are something else.
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However, one should not react so categorically to information just because it seems incredible to us. It needs to be checked.

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Even the most superficial glance at the results of genetic research will convince us that the average inhabitant of today's Iran is still 20 percent Aryan - a Slav. In addition, it turns out that the Iranians, although in a smaller size, also have another Slavic haplogroup - the haplogroup of the Vikings-Russians! That is, the average static Iranian is still more than 20 percent Slavic. And this is in the 21st century, after almost a thousand years of existence in an isolated state among not very friendly surroundings, thanks to which the Persians could not but undergo intensive assimilation!
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When, in addition to everything, we turn to ancient sources that shed light on what the appearance of the ancient Persians was, we will finally make sure that the Persians were tall, fair-haired people with blue eyes, and not a people whose appearance is characteristic of the inhabitants of the Middle East. In addition to meaningful texts, many images have survived, which adequately reflect the appearance of an ordinary citizen of the ancient Persian state ( Look to the left:"Head of the Dead Persian", 230 - 220 BC, Therme Museum, Rome; click on the picture to enlarge the image).
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Upon acquaintance with historical sources, one cannot fail to notice the fact that the territory of modern Iran began to be populated by migrants from the North somewhere in the 9th millennium BC, and, as it becomes clear, this settlement took place in several stages. It is also striking that at different stages of history, the SAME PEOPLE of migrants from the North had different names.
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I will not list them so as not to drive the dear reader crazy. The situation is very similar to that of the so-called " Slavs"when a consanguineous people were artificially insolently divided into a multitude of certain" Radimichi", "Vlachs", "Etruscans", "glade", "antov", "Germans"etc., gave them in the teeth different religions instead of their Universal Cosmic Worldview based on KNOWLEDGE and not on FAITH, smashed them, in addition, on" western", "eastern", "southern" or even, " white and piebald"in order to present them as separate tribes or even hostile races towards each other, so that we are modern descendants of those allegedly" tribes"never found ends.
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So, for example, it is very painful to see on the pages of history textbooks something like: " Scythians(or Slavs) The Black Sea region was not lucky, since from the south they were constantly threatened by the raids of the Persians... "It is evident that the author of such lines is so zombified with traditional clichés that no matter what scientific degree he has, there will be zero benefit from such a scientist-historian. how " Scythians" (Slavs) and " Persians"from the point of view of genetic science, they are integral parts of the same people ( look on the left - this is how many of the"Persians" even today, despite the past millennia. These are ordinary Iranian citizens from different strata of modern Iranian society; click on the picture to enlarge the image and develop your doubts about the questions of who the ancient Persians were and what they looked like).
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In fact, everything was much simpler. Climatic conditions of the latter " small"cold snaps pushed the carrier of haplogroup R1a Slav-Aria from his arctic ancestral home to the south. He got to Iran mainly using the basin of the Ra river ( Volga) and the water area of ​​the Caspian Sea, which, by the way, in those distant times was much larger and occupied the space up to the confluence with the Aral Sea.
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On the way to Iran, the Slav-Aryan at one of the stages of his journey to the south - ATTENTION, THIS IS VERY IMPORTANT! - genetically " touched"the carrier of the Ruso-Varangian haplogroup I - his brother Slav-Rus, who, as we already know, was an original inhabitant of the European continent, and partially assimilated with him, adding to his markers of the Slav-Aryan also the genetics of the Slav-Rus.
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In turn, the Slav-Rus at the same time completely scooped up the Slavic-Aryan genes of refugees from the north. This happened no less than 10,000 years ago in the geographical region where today's Belarus and the adjacent territories lie. This is how the genetic composition of Belarusians, northern Ukrainians and Russians of the Smolensk region of Russia was formed, which, unlike the overwhelming majority of other peoples, has retained its primary characteristics to our time and which, by its properties, personifies an elite sample of the genetic core of a white Caucasian.
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It simply could not be otherwise, since the territory of today's Belarus, Ukraine and the west of Russia was at the time of the Slavic-Aryan exodus from the North, the eastern border of the settlement of the Slavs-Rus. Elementary logic dictates that the Slavs-Aryans could not penetrate in large numbers into the possessions of the Rus, already well established in Europe, who were at approximately the same level of technological progress as the Aryans. The Aryans needed a living space and they found it, going further south.
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Nevertheless, since the migration of the Slavs-Aryans had to be quite long, in the zone of their direct contact with the Slavs-Rus, which passed exactly through the land where Belarus, northern Ukraine and the Smolensk region of Russia now lie, a kind of permanent relationship was formed between these two great nations. These relations ultimately led to the formation of a powerful Russian-Aryan community, which later, spreading throughout North-Central Europe and also forming its outposts on the Apennine Peninsula, the Balkans and the Middle East, was finally embodied in a number of famous states of antiquity and the Middle Ages.
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This circumstance is responsible for the presence of haplogroup I in the inhabitants of today's Iran, which, as you know, is located far from Europe - the area of ​​traditional settlement of the carrier of haplogroup I Slavyanin-Rus. As we already know, artifacts on the territory of the settlement of genetic Slavs are necessarily characterized by the presence of swastika motives, and Iran is no exception here ( see above left - jewelry chain dating from the 1st millennium BC, found in Iran, Kularaz in the Gilan region).
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It should be noted that Iran is the most eastern point on the geographical map, where the presence of the Russo-Varangian genetics of the Slavs-Rus has generally reached. The fact that the ancient Persian was with the present Slavs and, in particular, with the Belarusians, in consanguinity, is confirmed not only by genetics.
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In conclusion, I repeat: if we glance at the inhabitants of today's Iran, we cannot fail to notice that among them there are many representatives with the most Caucasian appearance. Take another look and you will once again be convinced that, for example, the speaker of the Iranian parliament, Mr. A. Larijani, looks more like a Belarusian teacher than a person from the Middle East ( see above left Mr. Larijani).
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Seeing a white indigenous person among modern Iranian citizens is not very difficult. In Iran, there are still many not only light-skinned, completely European-looking people, but also very real blondes ( right: children from a village in northwestern Iran).

Around the 6th century BC. the Persians emerged on the arena of world history. With phenomenal speed, they managed to turn from an unknown tribe into a formidable empire that existed for several hundred years.

Portrait of the ancient Persians

What the ancient Iranians were like can be judged by the ideas of the peoples who lived next to them. For example, Herodotus wrote that initially the Persians wore clothing made of skins, as well as felt caps, which were called tiaras. They did not drink wine. They ate as much as they had. They were indifferent to gold and silver. They were distinguished from neighboring peoples by their tall stature, strength, courage and incredible cohesion.

It is interesting that the Persians, even having become a great power, tried to follow the precepts of their ancestors.

For example, during the coronation ceremony, the newly-made king had to wear simple clothes, eat some dried figs and wash them down with sour milk.

At the same time, the Persians could marry as many women as they saw fit. And this is without taking into account the concubines and slaves. It is also interesting that the laws did not prohibit marrying even close relatives, be they sisters or nieces. In addition, there was a custom according to which a man did not show his women to strangers. Plutarch wrote about this, pointing out that the Persians hid from prying eyes not only wives, but even concubines and slaves. And if they needed to be transported somewhere, then closed carriages were used. This custom is reflected in art. For example, in the ruins of Persepolis, archaeologists have not been able to find a single relief with a female image.

Achaemenid dynasty

The era of the omnipotence of the Persians began with King Cyrus II, who belonged to the Achaemenid family. He managed to quickly subdue the once mighty Media and several smaller states. After that, the king's gaze fell on Babylon.

The war with Babylon was just as quick. In 539 BC. Cyrus set out with his army and fought with the army of the enemy near the city of Opis. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Babylonians. Then large Sippar was captured, and soon Babylon itself.

After this triumph, Cyrus decided to curb the wild tribes in the east, who, with their raids, could disturb the borders of his power. The king fought with the nomads for several years, until he himself died in 530 BC.

The next kings - Cambyses and Darius - continued the work of their predecessor and further expanded the territory of the state.

So, Cambyses managed to capture Egypt and make it one of the satrapies.

By the time of the death of Darius (485 BC), the Persian Empire occupied a vast territory. In the west, its borders rested against the Aegean Sea, in the east - in India. In the north, the power of the Achaemenids extended to the deserted deserts of Central Asia, and in the south - to the rapids of the Nile. It is safe to say that Persia at that time subjugated almost the entire civilized world.

But like any empire that possessed such a vast territory, it was constantly tormented by internal turmoil and uprisings of the conquered peoples. The Achaemenid dynasty collapsed in the 4th century BC, unable to withstand the test of the army of Alexander the Great.

Sassanian state

The Persian Empire was destroyed, and its capital, Persepolis, was plundered and burned. The last of the kings of the Achaemenid dynasty, Darius III, with his retinue went to Bactria, hoping to gather a new army there. But Alexander managed to catch up with the fugitive. In order not to be captured, Darius ordered his satraps to kill him, and themselves - to flee further.

After the death of the king in the conquered Persia, the era of Hellenism began. For the common Persians, it was like death.

After all, it was not just a change of lord that took place, they were captured by the hated Greeks, who quickly and harshly began to replace the original Persian customs with their own, which means they were completely alien.

Even the arrival of the Parthian tribe, which took place in the 2nd century BC. changed nothing. The nomadic Iranian tribe managed to expel the Greeks from the territory of ancient Persia, but they themselves fell under the influence of their culture. Therefore, even under the rule of the Parthians, exclusively Greek was used on coins and in official documents.

But the worst thing was that the temples were erected in the Greek image and likeness. And most of the Persians considered it blasphemy and sacrilege.

After all, Zarathushtra bequeathed to their ancestors that it is forbidden to worship idols. Only the inextinguishable flame should be considered as a symbol of God, and sacrifices should have been made to it. But the Persians were not able to change anything.

Therefore, out of impotent rage, they called all the buildings of the Hellenic period "the structures of the Dragon."

The Persians endured Greek culture until 226 AD. But in the end, the cup overflowed. The rebellion was raised by the ruler of Parsa Ardashir, and he managed to overthrow the Parthian dynasty. This moment is considered to be the birth of the second Persian state, headed by representatives of the Sassanid dynasty.

Unlike the Parthians, they tried in every possible way to revive the very ancient culture of Persia, the beginning of which was laid by Cyrus. But it turned out to be difficult to do this, since the Greek dominance almost completely erased the legacy of the Achaemenids from the memory. Therefore, the society, which the Zoroastrian priests told about, was chosen as a "guiding star" for the revived state. And it so happened that the Sassanids tried to revive such a culture, which in reality never existed. And at the forefront was religion.

But the people of Persia embraced the ideas of the new rulers with enthusiasm. Therefore, under the Sassanids, the entire Hellenic culture began to quickly dissolve: the temples were destroyed, and the Greek language ceased to be official. Instead of statues of Zeus, the Persians began to erect altars of fire.

Under the Sassanids (3rd century AD), there was another clash with the hostile Western world - the Roman Empire. But this time this confrontation ended in victory for the Persians. In honor of the significant event, King Shapur I ordered to carve a bas-relief on the rocks, which depicted his triumph over the Roman emperor Valerian.

The capital of Persia was the city of Ctesiphon, once erected by the Parthians. But the Persians essentially "combed" it to match their newfound culture.

Persia began to develop rapidly thanks to the competent use of the irrigation system. Under the Sassanids, the territory of ancient Persia, as well as Mesopotamia, becomes literally riddled with underground water pipes made of clay pipes (cariza). Their cleaning was carried out using wells dug at intervals of ten kilometers. This modernization allowed Persia to successfully grow cotton, sugarcane and develop winemaking. At the same time, Persia has become almost the main world supplier of a wide variety of fabrics: from woolen to silk.

The fall of the empire

The history of the Sassanian dynasty ended after a fierce and bloody war with the Arabs, which lasted almost twenty years (633-651). It is difficult to reproach the last king of Yezdeget III for anything. He fought the invaders to the very end, and was not going to surrender. But Yezdeget died ingloriously - near Merv, a miller stabbed him in a dream, encroaching on the king's jewels.

But even after the official victory, the Persians, every now and then raised uprisings, however, unsuccessful. Even the internal turmoil in the caliphate did not allow the ancient people to gain freedom. Only Gugan and Tabaristan, the last fragments of a once great power, held out the longest. But they were also captured by the Arabs in 717 and 760, respectively.

And although the Islamization of Iran was successful, the Arabs were never able to assimilate the Persians, who managed to maintain their self-identity. Closer to the 900s, under the new Samanid dynasty, they managed to gain independence. True, Persia could no longer become a great power again.