History

The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on the forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.

• Royal period (/ - / 509 BC).
• Republic (510 / - / 27 BC)
  • Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
  • Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
    • Sometimes the period of the Middle (classical) Republic (287-133 BC) is also distinguished.
• Empire (30/27 BC - AD)
  • Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - AD)
  • Late Roman Empire. Dominat (- years)

Ancient Rome map

During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium - the area of ​​residence of the Latin tribe. During the period of the Early Republic, Rome significantly expanded its territory during numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although the vertical system of control over the subordinate territories had not yet taken shape at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon led him to conflict with Carthage, a large state founded by the Phoenicians. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began expansion to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor and Syria. In the 1st century BC. NS. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, as a result of which the ultimate victor, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julian-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not last in power for a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire fell on a relatively calm time of the II century, but already the III century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy position of the empire was complicated. The establishment of a dominant system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for a while by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the IV century, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of an active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which finally undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus-Augustulus, by the German leader Odoacer on September 4 is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire.

Magistrates could submit a bill (rogatio) to the Senate, where it was discussed. Initially, the Senate had 100 members, during most of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of senators, later their number varied. A place in the Senate was obtained after passing ordinary magistrates, but the censors had the right to lustration the Senate with the possibility of expelling individual senators. The Senate met in calendars, nons, and idam every month, and also on any day in the event of an emergency convocation of the senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convocation of the Senate and the comitia in the event that the appointed day was declared unfavorable for one or another "sign".

Dictators who were elected on special occasions and for no more than 6 months had extraordinary powers and, unlike ordinary magistrates, were not accountable. With the exception of the extraordinary magistracy of the dictator, all positions in Rome were collegiate.

Society

The laws

As for the Romans, for them the task of war was not just victory over the enemy or the establishment of peace; the war only ended to their satisfaction when the former enemies became “friends” or allies (socii) of Rome. The goal of Rome was not to subjugate the whole world to the power and imperium of Rome, but to spread the Roman system of alliances to all countries of the earth. The Roman idea was expressed by Virgil, and it was not just a poet's fantasy. The Roman people themselves, populus Romanus, owed their existence to such a war-born partnership, namely, an alliance between patricians and plebeians, the end of the internal strife between whom was put by the famous Leges XII Tabularum. But even this document of their history, sanctified by antiquity, was not considered by the Romans to be divinely inspired; they preferred to believe that Rome had sent a commission to Greece to study the systems of legislation there. Thus, the Roman Republic, itself based on law - an indefinite alliance between patricians and plebeians - used the leges instrument mainly for treaties and administration of provinces and communities belonging to the Roman system of alliances, in other words, to the ever-expanding group of Roman socii that formed societas Romana.

Social structure of Roman society

Over time, the social structure as a whole has become noticeably more complex. Horsemen appeared - people not always of noble birth, but engaged in commercial operations (trade was considered an unworthy occupation by the patricians) and concentrated significant wealth in their hands. Among the patricians, the most noble families stood out, and some of the families gradually faded away. Around the 3rd century. BC NS. the patriciate merges with the horsemen into the nobility.

Until the late Republic, there was a type of marriage cum manu, "at hand", that is, a daughter, getting married, fell into the power of the head of the husband's family. Later, this form of marriage fell out of use and marriages began to be contracted sine manu, without a hand, under which the wife was not under the control of her husband and remained under the control of her father or guardian. Ancient Roman marriage, especially in the upper classes, often consisted of financial and political interests.

Several families with kinship ties formed the gens, the most influential of which played an important role in political life.

Fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by prevailing moral norms and personal considerations. The father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a young man from the age of 14.

Roman law provided for two forms of marriage:

When a woman passed from the authority of her father to the authority of her husband, that is, she was accepted into the family of her husband.

After marriage, the woman remained a member of the old surname, while claiming the inheritance of the family. This case was not the main one and was more like cohabitation than marriage, since the wife could leave her husband and return home at almost any moment.

Regardless of which form young people preferred, marriage was preceded by betrothal between the young. During the betrothal, the young took a marriage vow. Each of them, when asked if he promised to marry, answered: "I promise." The groom handed the future wife a coin, as a symbol of the marriage concluded between the parents, and an iron ring, which the bride wore on the ring finger of her left hand.

At weddings, all matters related to the organization of the wedding celebration were transferred to the steward - a woman who enjoyed general respect. The steward took the bride out into the hall and handed her over to the groom. The transmission was accompanied by religious rituals in which the woman played the role of the priestess of the hearth. After the feast in the parents' house, the newlywed was seen off to her husband's house. The bride had to theatrically resist and cry. And the steward stopped the girl's stubbornness, taking her from the arms of her mother and handing her over to her husband.

Celebrations associated with the arrival of a new family member began on the eighth day after childbirth and lasted for three days. The father raised the child from the ground and gave a name to the baby, thereby announcing his decision to accept him into the family. After that, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, as a rule, amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits.

For a long time it was not necessary to register a child. Only when the Roman came of age and put on a white toga, he became a citizen of the Roman state. He was introduced to officials and included in the list of citizens.

For the first time, the registration of newborns was introduced at the dawn of a new era by Octavian Augustus, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days from the date of birth. Registration of children was carried out in the Temple of Saturn, where the governor's office and archive were located. At the same time, the child's name and date of birth were confirmed. His free origin and the right of citizenship were confirmed.

Situation of women

The woman was subordinate to the man because, according to Theodor Mommsen, she "belonged only to the family and did not exist for the community." In wealthy families, a woman was given an honorable position, she was engaged in the management of the economy. Unlike Greek women, Roman women could freely appear in society, and, despite the fact that the father had the highest power in the family, they were protected from his arbitrariness. The main principle of building Roman society is to rely on the elementary cell of society - the family (surname).

The head of the family, the father (pater familias), ruled infinitely in the family, and his power in the family was formalized by law. The family included not only a father and mother, but also sons, their wives and children, as well as unmarried daughters.

The surname included both slaves and all household property.

The power of the father extended to all members of the family.

Almost all decisions regarding family members were made by the father himself.

At the birth of a child, he determined the fate of the newborn; he either recognized the child, or ordered it to be killed, or abandoned it without any help.

The father solely owned all the family's property. Even after reaching adulthood and getting married, the son remained powerless in his surname. He had no right to own any real estate during his father's life. Only after the death of his father, by virtue of his will, did he receive his property by inheritance. The infinite domination of the father existed throughout the Roman Empire, as well as the right to dispose of the fate of loved ones. In the late period of the Roman Empire, fathers were freed from unwanted children due to economic difficulties and a general decline in the moral foundations of society.

In Roman families, a woman had great rights, since she was entrusted with the duties of housekeeping. She was the sovereign mistress of her house. It was considered good form when a woman was good at establishing family life, freeing up her husband's time for more important state affairs. The dependence of a woman on her husband was essentially limited to property relations; a woman could not own and dispose of property without the permission of her husband.

A Roman woman freely appeared in society, went to visit, attended solemn receptions. But politics was not a woman's business, she was not supposed to be present at the meetings of the people.

Education

Boys and girls began to be taught at the age of seven. Wealthy parents preferred homeschooling. The poor used the services of the schools. At the same time, the prototype of modern education was born: children went through three stages of education: primary, secondary and higher. The heads of the family, taking care of the education of their children, tried to hire Greek teachers for their children or to get a Greek slave for training.

The vanity of the parents forced them to send their children to Greece for higher education.

At the first stages of education, children were mainly taught to write and count, they were given information on history, law and literary works.

At the Higher School, teaching took place in the art of public speaking. During the practical lessons, the students performed exercises that consisted of making speeches on a given topic from history, mythology, literature, or from public life.

Outside Italy, they received education mainly in Athens, on the island of Rhodes, where they also improved their oratory, got an idea of ​​various philosophical schools. Education in Greece became especially relevant after Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Licinius Crassus, being censors in 92 BC. NS. , closed Latin rhetorical schools.

At the age of 17-18, the young man had to leave the doctrine and undergo military service.

The Romans also cared about the fact that women were educated in connection with the role they had in the family: organizer of family life and educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl. In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers of estates and were engaged in trade, were put overseers over other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucratic apparatus of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects.

A literate slave was worth more than an illiterate one because he could be used for skilled work. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus.

Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to form a significant stratum in Rome. With nothing behind their souls except the thirst for power and profit, they strove to take the place of an employee, a manager in the state apparatus, engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to appear, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves slighted and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. Ultimately, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans away from government.

Army

The Roman army for almost the entire time of its existence was, as practice proved, the most advanced among the rest of the states of the Ancient World, having gone from the people's militia to professional regular infantry and cavalry with many auxiliary units and allied formations. At the same time, the main fighting force has always been the infantry (in the era of the Punic Wars, in fact, the marines that showed themselves perfectly appeared). The main advantages of the Roman army were mobility, flexibility and tactical training, which allowed it to operate in conditions of various terrain and in harsh weather conditions.

With a strategic threat to Rome or Italy, or a sufficiently serious military threat ( tumultus) all work was stopped, production was stopped and everyone who could simply carry weapons was recruited into the army - the inhabitants of this category were called tumultuarii (subitarii), and the army - tumultuarius (subitarius) exercitus... Since the usual recruitment procedure took longer, the commander-in-chief of this army, the magistrate took out special banners from the Capitol: red, indicating recruitment for the infantry, and green for the cavalry, after which he traditionally announced: “Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me sequatur” (“Who wants save the republic, let him follow me "). The military oath was also pronounced not individually, but together.

The culture

Politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred) and historiography were recognized as deeds worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. On this basis, the early culture of Rome took shape. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, penetrating through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were perceived only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman system of values ​​or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Roman culture during its heyday had a huge impact on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe.

The early Roman worldview was characterized by the feeling of being a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civic community and the priority of state interests over personal ones, combined with conservatism, which consisted in following the mores and customs of their ancestors. In - centuries. BC NS. there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the personality began to be opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were rethought.

Language

Latin language, the appearance of which is attributed to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. NS. was the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the process of the historical development of ancient Italy, Latin supplanted other Italic languages ​​and eventually took a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. Latin was spoken by the population of the small region of Latius (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower course of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latius was called the Latins (lat. Latini), his language is Latin. The center of this area was the city of Rome, after which the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves the Romans (lat. Romans).

There are several stages in the development of Latin:

• Archaic Latin
• Classical Latin
• Postclassic Latin
• Late latin

Religion

Ancient Roman mythology in many aspects is close to Greek, up to the direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions associated with the worship of spirits also played an important role: geniuses, Penates, Lares, lemurs and mans. Also in ancient Rome, there were numerous colleges of priests.

Although religion played a significant role in traditional ancient Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. NS. a significant part of the Roman elite was already indifferent to religion. In the 1st century BC. NS. Roman philosophers (most notably Titus Lucretius Carus and Mark Tullius Cicero) largely revise or question many of the traditional religious positions.

Art, music, literature

Everyday life

The social evolution of Roman society was first studied by the German scientist G.B. Niebuhr. Ancient Roman life and life were based on developed family legislation and religious rituals.

To make better use of the daylight, the Romans usually got up very early, often around four in the morning, and after breakfast, they began to engage in public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.

In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mainly thick, steeply cooked porridge made from spelled, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. The culinary arts began to develop in the 3rd century. BC NS. and reached unprecedented heights under the empire.

The science

Main article: Ancient roman science

Roman science inherited a number of Greek studies, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics) it was mainly of an applied nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numbering and the Julian calendar that received worldwide distribution. At the same time, its characteristic feature was the presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form. Jurisprudence and agricultural sciences reached a special flourishing, a large number of works were devoted to architecture and urban planning and military technology. The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedic scientists Guy Pliny Secundus the Elder, Mark Terentius Varro and Lucius Annei Seneca.

Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the wake of the Greek, with which it was largely associated. Stoicism is the most widespread in philosophy.

Roman science has achieved remarkable success in the field of medicine. Among the outstanding physicians of Ancient Rome, one can note: Dioscorides, a pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany, Soranus of Ephesus, an obstetrician and pediatrician, Claudius Galen, a talented anatomist who discovered the functions of nerves and the brain.

Encyclopedic treatises written during the Roman era remained the most important source of scientific knowledge for most of the Middle Ages.

The legacy of ancient Rome

Roman culture, with its developed ideas about the expediency of things and actions, about the duty of a person to himself and the state, about the importance of law and justice in the life of society, supplemented ancient Greek culture with its desire to understand the world, a developed sense of proportion, beauty, harmony, a pronounced game element ... Ancient culture, as a combination of these two cultures, became the basis of European civilization.

The cultural heritage of Ancient Rome can be traced in scientific terminology, architecture, and literature. For a long time, Latin has been the language of international communication for all educated people in Europe. Until now, it is used in scientific terminology. On the basis of the Latin language in the former Roman possessions, the Romance languages ​​arose, which are spoken by the peoples of a large part of Europe. Among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans is the Roman law they created, which played a huge role in the further development of legal thought. It was in the Roman dominions that Christianity arose and then became the state religion - a religion that united all European peoples and greatly influenced the history of mankind.

Historiography

Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli, also during the Enlightenment in France.

The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon, "The History of the Decline and Collapse of the Roman Empire", which covered the period from the end of the II century to the fall of a fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon appreciated the virtue of Roman citizens, at the same time, the disintegration of the empire according to him began already under Commodus, and Christianity became the catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside.

Niebuhr became the founder of the critical movement and wrote the work "Roman History", where it is brought up to the First Punic War. Niebuhr attempted to establish how the Roman tradition arose. In his opinion, the Romans, like other peoples, had a historical epic, preserved mainly in noble families. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, considered from the angle of the formation of the Roman community.

In the Napoleonic era, V. Durui's work "History of the Romans" appeared, emphasizing the then popular Caesarian period.

A new historiographic milestone was opened by the work of Theodor Mommsen, one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. An important role was played by his voluminous work "Roman History", as well as "Roman State Law" and "Collection of Latin Inscriptions" ("Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum").

Later came the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero - "The Greatness and Fall of Rome." The work of I.M. Grevs "Essays on the history of Roman land tenure, mainly in the era of the Empire," where, for example, information appeared about the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners of the end of the Republic, and the model of the average estate of the August era was considered the economy of Horace.

Against the hypercriticism of the works of the Italian E. Pais, who denied the authenticity of the Roman tradition until the 3rd century AD. NS. , De Sanctis spoke in his History of Rome, where, on the other hand, information about the tsarist period was almost completely denied.

The study of Roman history in the USSR was closely associated with Marxism-Leninism, which did not have specialized works at its core and was based on such frequently cited works as "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State", "Chronological Extracts", "Forms preceding capitalist production "," Bruno Bauer and early Christianity, "etc. The emphasis was on slave uprisings and their role in Roman history, as well as agrarian history.

Much attention was paid to the study of ideological struggle (S. L. Utchenko, P. F. Preobrazhensky), which was seen even in the most favorable periods of the empire (N. A. Mashkin, E. M. Shtaerman, A. D. Dmitrev, etc.) ...

Attention was also paid to the conditions of the transition from the Republic to the empire, considered, for example, in Mashkin's work "Principate of Augustus" or in "Essays on the History of Ancient Rome" by V. S. Sergeev, and the provinces, in the study of which A. B. Ranovich stood out.

Among those who studied the relations of Rome with other states, A.G. Bokshchanin stood out.

Since 1937, the "Bulletin of Ancient History" began to appear, where articles on Roman history and archaeological excavations began to be frequently published.

After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, the History of Rome by SI Kovalev and The History of the Roman People by the critic VN Dyakov were published in 1948. In the first work, the Roman tradition is considered reliable in many ways; in the second, doubts were expressed on this score.

see also

Primary sources

• Dio Cassius. "Roman history"
• Ammianus Marcellinus. "Acts"
• Polybius. "General history"
• Publius Cornelius Tacitus. "History", "Annals"
• Plutarch. "Comparative Biographies"
• Appian. "Roman history"
• Sextus Aurelius Victor. "On the origin of the Roman people"
• Flavius ​​Eutropius. "Breviary from the founding of the city"
• Guy Valley Paterculus. "Roman history"
• Publius Anney Flor. "Epitomes of Titus Livy"
• Herodian. "History of Rome from Marcus Aurelius"
• Diodorus of Siculus. "Historical Library"
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Roman Ancient History"
• Guy Suetonius Tranquill. "Biography of the Twelve Caesars"
• The so-called "Authors of the Biographies of August" ( Scriptores Historiae Augustae): Aelius Spartian, Julius Capitolinus, Vulcation Gallican, Aelius Lampridius, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius ​​Vopisk

Fragments

• Gnei Nevy. "Punia War"
• Quintus Annius. "Annals"
• Quint Fabius Pictor. "Annals"
• Lucius Cincius Aliment. "Chronicle"
• Mark Porcius Cato the Elder. "Beginnings"
• Pompey Trog. "Filippov's story"
• Guy Sallust Crisp. "Yugurt war"
• Granny Licinian

Later fundamental works

• Theodor Mommsen Roman history.
• Edward Gibbon The history of the decline and destruction of the Roman Empire.
• Platner, Samuel Ball. A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome

Notes (edit)

Links

• X Legio - Military equipment of antiquity (including fragments of Russian translations of Roman authors and articles on the military affairs of Ancient Rome)
• Roman glory Antique military art
• The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
• The Art of Ancient Rome - Photo Gallery by Stevan Kordich

Initially, it was very archaic: at its head were kings, whose power still resembled the power of a leader. The kings led the city militia, performed the functions of the supreme judge and priest. An important role in the management of Ancient Rome was played by senate - council of elders of clans. The full-fledged inhabitants of Rome - patricians - gathered for popular meetings, where kings were elected and decisions were made on the most important issues of the city's life. In the VI century. BC NS. plebeians received some rights - they were included in the civic community, were allowed to vote and received the opportunity to own land.

At the end of the VI century. BC NS. in Rome, the power of the kings was replaced by an aristocratic republic, in which the patriots played a leading role. Despite the fact that the state structure of Rome received the name republic, that is, the "common cause", real power remained in the hands of the most noble and wealthy part of Roman society. During the period of the Roman Republic, the nobility was called nobles.

The citizens of ancient Rome - nobili, horsemen and plebeians - formed a civil community - civitas... The political system of Rome during this period was called a republic and was built on the principles of civil self-government.

Comitia (supreme power)

The supreme power belonged to the assembly of the people - comitia. All citizens who reached the age of majority were members of the people's assemblies. The commissions passed laws, elected collegia of officials, made decisions on the most important issues in the life of the state and society, such as the conclusion of peace or the declaration of war, exercised control over the activities of officials and in general over the life of the state, introduced taxes, and granted civil rights.

Masters (executive branch)

The executive power belonged to master's degrees. The most important officials were two consul who headed the state and commanded the army. Below them were two praetor who were in charge of legal proceedings. Censors carried out a census of the property of citizens, that is, they determined belonging to a particular class, and also exercised control over the rights. Tribunes of the people, elected only from among the plebeians, were obliged to defend the rights of ordinary citizens of Rome. The tribunes of the people often put forward draft laws in the interests of the plebeians and, in this regard, opposed the senate and the nobles. An important instrument of the tribunes of the people was the right veto - a ban on orders and actions of any officials, including consuls, if, in the opinion of the tribunes, their actions infringed upon the interests of the plebeians. There were also other master's degrees in which master-you engaged in a variety of current affairs.

Senate

In the state system of the Roman Republic, the Senate played a very important role - a collective body, which usually consisted of 300 representatives of the highest Roman aristocracy. The Senate discussed the most important issues of state life and made decisions for approval by the people's assemblies, heard reports from officials, and received foreign ambassadors. The importance of the Senate was great, and in many respects it was he who determined the domestic and foreign policy of the Roman Republic.

Principate

After the establishment of imperial power in Ancient Rome in the first, early, period of the Roman Empire, it began to be called principate.

Dominat

After the crisis of the Roman Empire, Diocletian took the place of the emperor. The unlimited monarchy he established was named dominate.

In the late Roman Empire, the central power was weakening more and more. The change of emperors often took place by force - as a result of conspiracies. The provinces were out of the control of the emperors.

Until 510 BC, when the inhabitants expelled the last king, Tarquinius the Proud, from the city, kings ruled Rome. After that, Rome became a republic for a long time, power was in the hands of officials elected by the people. Each year, from among the members of the Senate, which included representatives of the Roman nobility, the citizens elected two consuls and other officials. The main idea of ​​such a device was that one person could not concentrate too much power in his hands. But in 49 BC. NS. Roman general Julius Caesar (top left), using the support of the people, led his troops to Rome and seized power in the republic. A civil war began, as a result of which Caesar defeated all rivals and became the ruler of Rome. Caesar's dictatorship caused discontent in the Senate, and in 44 BC. NS. Caesar was killed. This led to a new civil war and the collapse of the republican system. The adopted son of Caesar, Octavian, came to power and restored peace in the country. Octavian took the name Augustus and in 27 BC. NS. proclaimed himself a "princeps", which marked the beginning of the imperial power.

Into the symbol of the law

The symbol of the magistrate's (official's) power was the fascia - a bundle of rods and an ax. Wherever the official went, his assistants carried after him these symbols, which the Romans borrowed from the Etruscans.

Did you know?

Roman emperors did not have crowns like kings. Instead, they wore laurel wreaths over their heads. Previously, such wreaths were awarded to commanders for victories in battles.

In honor of August

The marble "Altar of Peace" in Rome celebrates the greatness of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. This bas-relief depicts members of the imperial family.

Town Square

The center of any Roman settlement or city was the forum. It was an open square, on the sides of which were public buildings and temples.

Elections and court sessions were held at the forum.

Faces in stone

On relief images in layered stone, the so-called cameos, portraits of famous people were often carved. This cameo depicts the Emperor Claudius, his wife Agrippina the Younger and her relatives.

Roman society

In addition to citizens, in ancient Rome there were people who did not have Roman citizenship. The citizens of Rome were divided into three classes: rich patricians (one of them is depicted here with busts of their ancestors in their hands), wealthy people - horsemen and ordinary citizens - plebeians. In the early period, only patricians could be senators. Later, the plebeians also received representation in the Senate, but in the imperial era they were deprived of this right. The "non-citizens" included women, slaves, as well as foreigners and residents of the Roman provinces.

The Great Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the greatest civilizations of the Ancient World. Before its heyday and for a long time after the collapse, the Western world did not know a more powerful state than Ancient Rome. In a short period of time, this power was able to conquer vast territories for itself, and its culture continues to influence humanity to this day.

History of Ancient Rome

The history of one of the most influential states of Antiquity began with small settlements located on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. In 753 BC. NS. these settlements united into a city called Rome. It was founded on seven hills, in a swampy area, in the very epicenter of constantly conflicting peoples - Latins, Etruscans and ancient Greeks. From this date, chronology began in Ancient Rome.

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According to an ancient legend, the founders of Rome were two brothers - Romulus and Remus, who were children of the god Mars and the vestal Remy Sylvia. Once at the center of the conspiracy, they were on the verge of death. The brothers were saved from certain death by a she-wolf who fed them with her milk. As they matured, they founded a beautiful city that was named after one of the brothers.

Rice. 1. Romulus and Rem.

Over time, perfectly trained warriors emerged from ordinary farmers, who managed to conquer not only all of Italy, but also many neighboring countries. The system of government, language, achievements of culture and art of Rome spread far beyond its borders. The decline of the Roman Empire fell on 476 BC.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome

The formation and development of the Eternal City is usually divided into three most important periods:

• Tsarsky ... The most ancient period of Rome, when the local population consisted mostly of fugitive criminals. With the development of crafts and the formation of the state system, Rome began to develop at a rapid pace. During this period, the power in the city belonged to the kings, the first of whom was Romulus, and the last - Lucius Tarquinius. The rulers did not receive power by inheritance, but were appointed by the Senate. When manipulations and bribery began to be used to obtain the coveted throne, the Senate decided to change the political structure in Rome and proclaimed a republic.

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Slavery was widespread in ancient Greek society. The greatest privileges were enjoyed by slaves who served the masters in the house. The hardest hit was the slaves, whose former activities were associated with exhausting work in the fields and the development of mineral deposits.

• Republican ... During this period, all power belonged to the Senate. The borders of Ancient Rome began to expand through the conquest and annexation of the lands of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Macedonia, and the Mediterranean. The republic was headed by representatives of the nobility, who were elected at a national assembly.
• The Roman Empire ... Power still belonged to the Senate, but a single ruler appeared on the political arena - the Emperor. During that period of time, Ancient Rome increased its territories so much that it became more and more difficult to govern empires. Over time, the power split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern, which was later renamed Byzantium.

Urban planning and architecture

The construction of cities in ancient Rome was approached with great responsibility. Each large settlement was built in such a way that two perpendicular roads intersect in its center. At their intersection was the central square, the market and all the most important buildings.

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Engineering thought in ancient Rome reached its peak. The local architects were especially proud of the aqueducts - water conduits through which a large volume of clean water was supplied to the city every day.

Rice. 2. Aqueduct in Ancient Rome.

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One of the oldest temples in Ancient Rome was the Capitol, built on one of the seven hills. The Capitoline Temple was not only the focus of religion, it was of great importance in strengthening the state and served as a symbol of the strength, power and might of Rome.

Numerous canals, fountains, an excellent sewerage system, a network of public baths (thermal baths) with hot and cold pools made life much easier for city dwellers.

Ancient Rome became famous for its roads, which provided troops and postal services with rapid movement, contributed to the developed trade. They were built by slaves who dug deep trenches and then filled them with gravel and stone. Roman roads were so solid that they could safely survive for more than one hundred years.

Culture of Ancient Rome

Deeds worthy of a true Roman were philosophy, politics, agriculture, war, civil law. The early culture of Ancient Rome was based on this. Special attention was paid to the development of sciences and various kinds of research.

Ancient Roman art, in particular painting and sculpture, had a lot in common with the art of Ancient Greece. A single ancient culture gave birth to many wonderful writers, poets, playwrights.

The Romans were very fond of entertainment, among which gladiator fights, chariot races and hunting wild animals were in greatest demand. Roman spectacles have become an alternative to the incredibly popular Olympic Games in ancient Greece.

Rice. 3. Gladiator fights.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic "Ancient Rome", we briefly learned the most important thing about Ancient Rome: the history of its origin, features of the formation of the state, the main stages of development. We got acquainted with ancient Roman art, culture, architecture.

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Introduction

Ancient Rome (lat. Roma antiqua) is one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and Antiquity. It is customary to divide the history of Roman society and the state into three main periods: the Royal period (VIII-VI centuries BC); Republican period (VI-I centuries BC); Imperial period (1st – 5th centuries AD). In 509 BC. in Rome, after the expulsion of the last (seventh) rex of Tarquinius the Proud, a republic was established.

The Republic is the historical era of Ancient Rome, in which aristocratic and democratic features were combined, with a significant predominance of the former, which ensured the privileged position of the noble wealthy elite of the slave owners. This was reflected in the powers and relationships of the highest state bodies.

The study of the history of Roman society - tracing the basic laws of its legal, social, political and cultural development and identifying specific features inherent only in ancient Rome - is of particular interest. The leading problems of the course of the history of the state received the clearest design and completeness in Roman times. If the early republic was characterized by the initial forms of slavery, then for the period of the late republic, civil wars, the historical content of which was the transition from the system of the ancient democratic polis to a totalitarian investment regime, characterized by a significant increase in the number of slaves, the penetration of slave labor into various spheres of the economic life of the state.

The rise of the Roman state

Ancient Rome (lat. Roma antiqua) - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and Antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and ancient Greeks had a definite influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached the peak of its power in the II century AD, when it controlled the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Azerbaijan in the east to Portugal in the west.

Ancient Rome presented the modern world with Roman law, some architectural forms and solutions (for example, an arch and a dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity as a religion was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. The official language of the ancient Roman state was Latin, religion for most of the period of its existence was polytheistic, the unofficial emblem of the empire was the golden eagle (aquila), after the adoption of Christianity, labarums appeared (the banner set by the emperor Constantine for his troops).

It is customary to divide the history of Roman society and the state into three main periods: the Royal period (VIII-VI centuries BC); Republican period (VI-I centuries BC); Imperial period (1st – 5th centuries AD). The latter period is still subdivided into principate and dominate. The transition to dominate dates back to the 3rd century AD.

The Western Roman Empire perished in the 5th century. The Eastern Empire (Byzantium) fell under the blows of the Turks in the middle of the 15th century.

State system of Rome during the period of the republic

In 509 BC. in Rome, after the expulsion of the last (seventh) rex of Tarquinius the Proud, a republic was established.

Republic - the historical era of Ancient Rome, characterized by an aristocratic-oligarchic form of government, in which the highest power was concentrated mainly in the senate and consuls. The Latin expression res publica means a common cause.

The Roman republic lasted for about five centuries, from the 6th to the 1st century. BC.

During the period of the republic, the organization of power was quite simple, and for some time it met the conditions that were in Rome at the time of the emergence of the state. Over the next five centuries of the republic's existence, the size of the state increased significantly. But this almost did not affect the structure of the supreme organs of the state, which were still in Rome and exercised centralized control over vast territories. Naturally, this situation reduced the efficiency of management and became, over time, one of the reasons for the fall of the republican system.

The Roman Republic combined aristocratic and democratic features, with a significant predominance of the former, which ensured a privileged position for the noble wealthy elite of the slave owners. This was reflected in the powers and relationships of the highest state bodies. They were the popular assemblies, the senate and magistrates. Although the popular assemblies were considered the organs of power of the Roman people and were the personification of the democracy inherent in the polis, they did not predominantly rule the state. This was done by the senate and magistrates - the organs of real power of the nobility.

In the Roman Republic, there were three types of popular assemblies - centuriate, tributary and curiate.

The main role was played by the centuriate assemblies, which, through their structure and order, ensured the decision-making of the prevailing aristocratic and wealthy circles of slave owners. True, their structure from the middle of the 3rd century. BC. with the expansion of the limits of the state and an increase in the number of free ones, it changed not in their favor: each of the five categories of possessing citizens began to put forward an equal number of centuries - 70 each, and the total number of centuries was brought to 373. But the predominance of aristocracy and wealth still remained the centuri of the higher ranks had far fewer citizens than the centuria of the lower ranks, and the impoverished proletarians, whose numbers had grown considerably, still constituted only one century. The competence of the centuriate assembly included the adoption of laws, the election of the highest officials of the republic (consuls, praetors, censors), the declaration of war and the consideration of complaints against death sentences.

The second type of popular assemblies was represented by tributary assemblies, which, depending on the composition of the inhabitants of the tribes participating in them, were divided into plebeian and patrician-plebeian. At first, their competence was limited. They elected lower officials (quaestors, aediles, etc.) and considered complaints against sentences on the recovery of a fine. The plebeian assemblies, in addition, elected a plebeian tribune, and from the 3rd century. BC. they also received the right to pass laws, which led to an increase in their importance in the political life of Rome. But at the same time, as a result of the increase in the number of rural tribes to 31 by this time (with the remaining 4 urban tribes, there were only 35 tribes), it became difficult for residents of distant tribes to appear in the meetings, which allowed the rich Romans to strengthen their positions in these meetings.

After the reforms of Servius Tullius, the curiae meetings lost their former importance. They only formally introduced to office persons elected by other assemblies, and in the end were replaced by an assembly of thirty representatives of the curia - lictors.

Popular assemblies in Rome were convened at the discretion of senior officials, who could both interrupt the meeting and postpone it to another Day. They also presided over the meetings and announced the issues to be resolved. The meeting participants could not change the submitted proposals. Voting on them was open and only at the end of the republican period was secret voting introduced (special voting tables were distributed to the meeting participants). An important, most often decisive, role was played by the fact that the decisions of the centuriat assembly on the adoption of laws and the election of officials in the first century of the republic's existence were subject to approval by the Senate, but also then, when in the 3rd century. BC. this rule was canceled, the senate received the right to preliminary consideration of issues brought to the assembly, which allowed him to actually direct the activities of the assembly.

Of particular importance in the Roman Republic belonged to the Senate, which had considerable competence, the pinnacle of power which dates back to 300-135 BC. The Senate (lat. Senatus, from senex - old man, council of elders) is one of the highest state authorities in ancient Rome. Arose from the council of elders of patrician families at the end of the royal era (about the 6th century BC). With the establishment of the republic, the senate, along with magistrates and popular assemblies (comitia), became an essential element of public life. The Senate included former magistrates for life - thus, the political forces and state experience of Rome were concentrated here.

Senators (at first there were 300, according to the number of patrician families, and in the 1st century BC the number of senators was increased first to 600, and then to 900) were not elected. Special officials - censors, who distributed citizens to centuri and tribes, once every five years compiled lists of senators from representatives of noble and wealthy families, who, as a rule, already held senior government positions. This made the Senate an elite body of the slave-owners, virtually independent of the will of the majority of free citizens.

The members of the Senate were divided into ranks in accordance with the previously held positions (consuls, praetors, aediles, tribunes, quaestors). During the discussions, the senators were given the floor in accordance with these ranks. At the head of the Senate was the most honored, the first of the senators - the princeps senatus.

During the period of the Republic, during the class struggle of the plebeians with the patricians (V-III centuries BC), the power of the Senate was somewhat limited in favor of the comitia (popular assemblies).

Formally, the senate was an advisory body, and its decrees were called senatus-consults. But the competence of the Senate was extensive. He, as indicated, controlled the legislative activities of the centuriate (and then plebeian) assemblies, approving their decisions, and subsequently preliminary considering (and rejecting) bills. In exactly the same way, the election of officials by the people's assemblies was controlled (first by the confirmation of the elected, and later - the candidates). An important role was played by the fact that the state treasury was at the disposal of the Senate. He set taxes and determined the necessary financial expenses. The competence of the Senate included decrees on public safety, improvement and religious worship. The foreign policy powers of the Senate were of great importance. If war was declared by the centuriate assembly, then the peace treaty, as well as the treaty of alliance, was approved by the senate. He also allowed recruitment into the army and distributed the legions among the commanders of the armies. Finally, in extraordinary circumstances (a dangerous war, a powerful uprising of slaves, etc.), the Senate could decide to establish a dictatorship.

Thus, the Senate actually exercised leadership over the state.

The decisions of the Senate (s. C., Senatus consulta) had the force of law, as well as the decisions of the popular assembly and the assembly of plebeians - a plebiscite.

According to Polybius (i.e. from the point of view of the Romans), decisions in Carthage were made by the people (plebs), and in Rome - by the best people, that is, by the Senate.

The Roman Republic at all its stages was slave-owning in its historical type and aristocratic in its form of government.

During the dawn of the republic, the most privileged were the heads of surnames from the senatorial estate - nobili. They also owned large land plots. The property qualification for such citizens reached a million sesterces (small silver coin).

The second estate was horsemen, whose property qualification was 400 thousand sesterces. Representatives of the first two estates enjoyed the advantage of holding positions, they could have their own stretchers, boxes in the theater, and wear gold rings.

A rank below were the decurions - the average landowners, the former magistrates who ruled the city.

The most important stages of the struggle between plebeians and patricians were: the establishment in 494 BC. the position of the plebeian (people's) tribune. The 10 tribunes elected by the plebeians did not participate in the administration, but could veto the order of any official.

In 451-450 years. BC. laws of XII tables are issued, which limits the possibility of arbitrary interpretation of law by patrician magistrates. From 449 BC plebeian gatherings could pass laws. From 445 BC marriages between plebeians and patricians were allowed. This opened access for the plebeians to the higher magistracy and to the Senate. Previously, they were not allowed to these positions, since it was believed that sacred divination (auspices) could only be performed by a patrician consul.

The Roman Republic is characterized by a system of checks and balances: two consuls, two assemblies, the responsibility of magistrates for abuses, their actions within strictly defined terms; separation of the judiciary from the executive.

The Senate consisted of 300 members, which included the richest, eminent members of the patrician families, persons who held senior positions in the magistracy in the past, and those who rendered great services to the state. Over time, according to the law of Ovinius, representatives of the plebeians began to be elected to the Senate. In 367 BC. it was established that one of the two consuls was to be elected from among the plebeians. In 289 BC. the Hortense (dictator) law was passed, which actually equalized the powers of plebeian assemblies with centuria.

Public positions were referred to as masters in Rome. As in Ancient Athens, in Rome there were certain principles for replacing master's degrees. These principles were electivity, urgency, collegiality, gratuitousness and responsibility. All magistrates (except for the dictator) were elected by the centuriate or tributary assemblies for one year. This rule did not apply to dictators whose term of office could not exceed six months. In addition, the powers of the consul in command of the army, in the event of an uncompleted military campaign, could be extended by the Senate. As in Athens, all magistracy was collegial - several people were elected to one position (one dictator was appointed). But the specificity of collegiality in Rome was that each magistrate had the right to independently make decisions. This decision could be overturned by his colleague (right of intercession). The magistrates did not receive remuneration, which, naturally, closed the way to magistrates (and then to the Senate) for the poor and the poor. At the same time, master's degrees, especially at the end of the republican period, became a source of significant income. Magistrates (with the exception of the dictator, censor, and plebeian tribune), after the expiration of their term of office, could be held accountable by the popular assembly that elected them.

It is necessary to note one more significant difference between the Roman magistracy - the hierarchy of positions (the right of a higher magistrate to cancel the decision of a lower one). The magistrates' power was subdivided into the highest (imperium) and general (potestas). The imperium included the highest military power and the right to conclude an armistice, the right to convene the Senate and popular assemblies and preside over them, the right to issue orders and force them to be executed, the right to court and impose punishment. This power belonged to the dictator, consuls and praetors. The dictator had a "supreme imperium" (summum imperium), which included the right to sentence to death, not subject to appeal. The consul belonged to a large imperium (majus imperium) - the right to pass a death sentence, which could be appealed in the centuriate assembly if it was passed in the city of Rome, and not subject to appeal if it was passed outside the city. The praetor had a limited imperium (imperium minus) - without the right to sentence to death.

The power of the potestas belonged to all magistrates and included the power to issue orders and impose fines for non-compliance.

Masters were divided into ordinary (ordinary) and extraordinary (extraordinary). Ordinary master's degrees included the positions of consuls, praetors, censors, quaestors, aediles, etc.

Consuls (in Rome, two consuls were elected) were the highest magistrates and headed the entire system of magistrates. Especially significant were the military powers of the consuls: recruiting and commanding the army, appointing military leaders, the right to conclude a truce and dispose of war booty. Praetors appeared in the middle of the 4th century. BC. as assistant consuls. Due to the fact that the latter, commanding the armies, were often absent from Rome, the praetors took over the management of the city and, most importantly, the leadership of the legal proceedings, which, by virtue of their imperium, allowed them to issue generally binding decrees and thereby create new norms of law. First, one praetor was elected, then two, one of whom dealt with cases of Roman citizens (city praetor), and the other - cases involving foreigners (praetor Peregrina). Gradually the number of praetors increased to eight.

Two censors were elected every five years to draw up lists of Roman citizens, distribute them according to tribes and ranks, and to draw up a list of senators. In addition, they were responsible for monitoring morality and issuing appropriate edicts. Quaestors, who were at first assistants to the consuls without special competence, eventually began to be in charge (under the control of the Senate) of financial expenses and the investigation of some criminal cases. Their number, respectively, grew and by the end of the republic reached twenty. The Ediles (there were two of them) observed public order in the city, trade in the market, organized festivals and spectacles.

The collegia of the "twenty-six husbands" consisted of twenty-six people, who were members of five collegia in charge of overseeing prisons, minting coins, cleaning roads, and some court cases.

Plebeian tribunes occupied a special place among the masters. Their veto right played an important role at the end of the plebeian struggle for equality. Then, as the role of the Senate increased, the activity of the plebeian tribunes began to decline, and the attempt of Gaius Gracchus in the II century. BC. to strengthen it ended in failure.

Extraordinary magistracy was created only in extraordinary circumstances threatening the Roman state with special danger - a difficult war, a large uprising of slaves, serious internal unrest. The dictator was appointed at the suggestion of the senate by one of the consuls. He possessed unlimited power, to which all magistrates were subject. The veto right of the plebeian tribune did not apply to him, the dictator's orders were not subject to appeal, and he was not responsible for his actions. True, in the first centuries of the republic's existence, dictatorships were introduced not only in extraordinary circumstances, but for the solution of specific tasks and the powers of the dictator were limited to the framework of this task. Outside its borders, ordinary magistracy operated. During the heyday of the republic, they hardly resorted to dictatorship. The term of the dictatorship was not to exceed six months. At the same time, during the crisis of the republic, this rule was violated and even life-long dictatorships appeared (the dictatorship of Sulla "for the publication of laws and the structure of the state").

The commissions of decemvirs, formed during one of the upsurges of the struggle of the plebeians for their rights for the preparation of the Laws of the XII tables, created in 450-451, can also be classified as extraordinary master's degrees. BC.

The period of the republic is a period of intensive upward development of production, which led to significant social shifts, which were reflected in the change in the legal status of certain groups of the population. A significant role in this process was played by successful wars of conquest, steadily expanding the boundaries of the Roman state, turning it into a powerful world power.

The very creation of centuriate assemblies consisting of armed soldiers meant recognition of the role of military force in the emerging state. The tremendous expansion of its limits, achieved by armed means, testified both to the role of the army and to the growth of its political significance. And the very fate of the republic was largely in the hands of the army.

Rome's original military organization was simple. There was no standing army. All citizens from 18 to 60 years old who had a property qualification were required to participate in hostilities (moreover, clients could perform military duties instead of patrons). The warriors on the campaign had to appear with their weapons, corresponding to their property qualification, and food. As noted above, each class of possessing citizens exhibited a certain number of centuries, united in legions. The command of the army was given by the senate to one of the consuls, who could transfer command to the praetor. The legions were headed by military tribunes, the centurions were commanded by the centurions, and the cavalry (decury) units were led by the decurions. In the event that hostilities lasted more than a year, the consul or praetor retained his right to command the army.

Greater military activity led to changes in the military organization. From 405 BC volunteers appeared in the army, to whom they began to pay salaries. In the III century. BC. in connection with the reorganization of the centuriate assembly, the number of centuries increased. Up to 20 legions were formed on their basis. In addition, legions appear from the allies, the municipalities organized by Rome and the provinces annexed to it. In the II century. BC. they were already up to two-thirds of the Roman army. At the same time, the property qualification, with which the military obligation was associated, was lowered.

The duration and frequency of wars makes the army a permanent organization. They also caused growing dissatisfaction of the main contingent of soldiers - the peasantry, being distracted from their farms, which, because of this, fell into decay. The time has come to reorganize the army. It was performed by Mary in 107 BC.

Military reform Mary, while retaining the military service of Roman citizens, allowed the recruitment of volunteers who received weapons and salaries from the state. In addition, the legionnaires were entitled to a part of the military booty, and from the 1st century. BC. veterans could receive land in Africa, Gaul and Italy (at the expense of confiscated and vacant land). The reform significantly changed the social composition of the army - most of it now came from the poor and poor, whose dissatisfaction with their own situation and the existing order was growing. The army professionalized, turned into a permanent one and became an independent declassified political force, and the commander, on whose success the legionnaires' welfare depended, became a major political figure.

The first consequences showed themselves soon. Already in 88 BC. under Sulla, the army for the first time in Roman history opposed the existing government and overthrew it. For the first time, the Roman army entered Rome, although according to ancient tradition, the carrying of weapons and the appearance of troops in the city was prohibited.

For several centuries, Rome waged aggressive wars. He succeeded by the beginning of the 1st century. BC. capture huge territories. In addition to Italy, Rome ruled over Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, North Africa, Macedonia, and partly in Asia Minor. An immense slave-owning power arose. A huge number of slaves entered the markets of Rome. After the capture of Carthage (149-146 BC) 50 thousand prisoners were handed over to slavery. The cheapness of slaves allowed them to be used in agriculture on a much larger scale than before.

Only free-born Roman citizens had full legal capacity. Freedmen, who could also be Roman citizens, were limited by a number of political and private rights, remaining in a certain dependence (clientele) on their former masters (patrons).

Latins and peregrines were classified as free, not having Roman citizenship. Latin was the name given to the inhabitants of Italy who were not part of the Roman community. They were deprived of political rights, in some cases they could not marry Roman citizens. But their property rights and rights to judicial protection were recognized. In the 1st century BC. after the allied wars, Latins and Roman citizens were equal in their rights. Peregrines were called foreigners, as well as residents of the Roman provinces, who did not have either Roman or Latin legal capacity. Since they could not use the norms of Roman law, a special set of norms was developed - the law of peoples, and the post of Peregrine Praetor was established to protect property rights. In 212 A.D. Emperor Caracalla granted the rights of Roman citizens to all residents of the Roman provinces.

Slaves had no rights, they were considered talking tools. Sources of slavery were captivity, birth from a slave, debt slavery in Rome was not widespread, and in the III century. BC. has been canceled. The master was not responsible for killing the slave. Fearing new uprisings of slaves, the ruling class was forced to make some reforms. Emperor Hadrian (II century) issued a decree according to which the owner had to pay a fine for the wanton murder of a slave. The most cruel masters were forced to sell their slaves. Later, individual slaves were allowed to have their own property, acquire ships, and open trading establishments. It was possible to free oneself from slavery only with the consent of the master.

The main social base of the republic was weakening. The discontent of the peasants coincided with a powerful uprising of slaves in Sicily (73-71 BC), the uprising of Spartacus and others. The six-year war with the Numidians, the invasion of the Chimers and Teutons demanded the mobilization of all forces. Military resources were at their limit. This testified to the deep crisis of the republic.

In 82 BC. the commander Sula occupied Rome. Thousands of Republicans were killed on the basis of lists of "suspicious" drawn up in advance. These lists are called proscription lists. The proscription lists have since become a symbol of lawlessness and cruelty. Sulla forced the popular assembly to elect him as dictator, and the first term of the dictatorship was not limited. An additional 300 members were appointed to the Senate from among the supporters of the dictator. Sulla became the unrestricted ruler of Rome.

The gradual liquidation of republican institutions continued during the civil war (1st century BC). Under Caesar, another 300 of his supporters entered the Senate. As a result, this body had 900 members. Caesar for his victories received the title of permanent dictator and pontiff, and in 45 BC. he was given the title of emperor. He could single-handedly exercise supreme power, declare war and conclude peace, dispose of the treasury, command an army.

The moral decay of the nobility forced Caesar (100–44 BC) to take on functions that were not quite characteristic of his office. Laws were introduced against luxury, debauchery, drunkenness, and a riotous lifestyle. Control over their implementation (as well as monitoring women of easy virtue) was entrusted to a specially created morality police, but the work was conducted ineffectively.

The final decline of the republic and the transfer of power into the hands of one person occurred shortly after the assassination of Caesar (44 BC). His distant relative Octavian managed to completely subjugate all the previous institutions.

Conclusion

Ancient Rome - one of the largest slave states - left the brightest mark in the history of mankind. Its cultural heritage has had a profound impact on the entire subsequent development of European civilization. Thanks to the creation and fixation of a ramified system of legal obligations, it achieved significant results that had a decisive influence on the legal thought of the Middle Ages and modern times, and which, undoubtedly, are among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans.

The sources of knowledge about the state and law of Ancient Rome are the monuments of legislation that have come down to us (the laws of the XII tables, the Code of Ferdosius, the Code of Justinian, etc.); works of Roman lawyers (Gaius, Paul, Ulpian, etc.); historians (Titus Livy, Tacitus, Aulus Helius, Flavius, etc.), philosophers and orators (Cicero, Seneca, etc.), writers (Plautus, Terentius, etc.), as well as numerous documents (papyri, epitaphs, etc.) .).

Historical tradition connects the founding of the city of Rome, and therefore the Roman state, Romulus and Remus from 753 BC. The duration of Roman history is estimated at 12 centuries. During such a long existence, the Roman state and law did not remain unchanged, they went through a certain path of development.

In Rome, the emergence of classes and the state was greatly influenced by a long struggle between two groups of free members of a tribal society - patricians and plebeians. As a result of the victories of the latter, democratic orders were established in it: the equality of all free citizens, the possibility of everyone to be simultaneously a landowner and a warrior, etc. However, by the end of the 2nd century. BC. In the Roman Empire, internal contradictions intensified, which led to the creation of a powerful state machine and the transition from republic to empire.

List of used literature

1. General history of state and law. Under. Ed. K.I. Batyr. - M .: "Bylina", 1995.

2. History of the state and law of foreign countries. Part 1. Ed. Prof. Krasheninnikova N.A. and prof. Zhidkova O.A. - M .: Publishing group NORMA - INFRA-M, 1999.

3. History of the state and law of foreign countries. Part 2. Ed. Prof. Krasheninnikova N.A. and prof. Zhidkova O.A. - M .: Publishing group NORMA - INFRA-M, 1999

4. History of the ancient world. Antiquity. M .: - "Vlados", 2000.

5. Milekhina E.V. "History of State and Law of Foreign Countries", 2002

6. Polyak G.B., Markova A.N. "The World History". M .: - "UNITY", 1995.

7. Sizikov M.I. "History of State and Law". M .: - "Legal Literature", 1997.

8. Taps, D.S. History of the state and law of foreign countries: textbook / D.S., Taps. - SPb.: Publishing house SZAGS, 2008 .-- 560 p.

9. Chernilovsky Z.M. "General history of state and law", M .: - "Jurist", 2002

In the ancient tradition, the carrying of weapons and the appearance of troops in the city was prohibited. The state system. The organs of state administration. During the period of the republic, the organization of power was quite simple and for some time met the conditions that were in Rome at the time of the emergence of the state. Over the next five centuries of the republic's existence, the size of the state increased significantly. ...

For a large power with overseas provinces inhabited by various peoples. By the end of the second century, the Roman republic entered a period of political crisis that lasted until the establishment of the principle of Augustus. One of the main points of this crisis was the 60s, which fell on the consulate of Cicero. Mark Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 103 on the estate of his father near the city ...