So, for example, the following experiment was carried out in our laboratory. The rabbit was induced neurosis with the help of constant noise. If this was done at the beginning of pregnancy, then the rabbits were born with serious deformities, primarily defects or even the absence of limbs and a brain. Unfavorable effects in later periods of pregnancy, when the formation of fetal organs was basically completed, led only to the birth of physiologically immature, weakened rabbits.

Yes, for the unborn child, the initial stages of pregnancy are extremely important, when the nervous system and all the most important organs are formed. If the fetus has safely passed this period of development, then in the final stages less obvious troubles await it, which, however, are also quite dangerous, since they are fraught with physiological immaturity. Therefore, in the first period of pregnancy, a woman must be protected from overload at work and at home, from conflict situations, to provide the most calm and healthy conditions for work and rest, to get rid of anxiety and haste.

I never tire of repeating that nine months of my wife’s pregnancy is the most serious test for her husband. All this time, he must take care of the expectant mother and the future child, save his wife from the “second working day” - household chores, and most importantly, prevent mental trauma, create a favorable emotional atmosphere at home. Only under such conditions can we expect that our shift will be healthy.

If mistakes were made in the prenatal period, they can be largely corrected by skillfully raising the baby.

For example, such a hardening procedure is extremely effective. The air temperature in the room where the child is located should not exceed 20-22 degrees. A glass of water with a temperature of 14-16 degrees should be applied for a short time to various parts of his body.

In infancy, cold can be considered the only factor stimulating physical activity, since when the ambient temperature drops, only muscle contractions warm a naked child. Such a wonderful exercise increases not only muscle tone, but also immunobiological resistance, the resistance of the newborn to the harmful influences of the external environment, helps to prevent diseases that physiologically immature children so often suffer from. It must also be remembered that immaturity, which is not fought against, which is not compensated for, deepens. And the most reliable way of compensation in the first days of life is cold exposures, a hardening procedure that we are talking about now.

But it is important not to go beyond the adaptive capabilities of the organism. A weakened infant must be handled with particular care. Nevertheless, careful actions are so effective for him that he is more and more making up for lost time and slowly but surely catching up with his peers in development.

In maternity hospitals, a newborn is brought to the first feeding in a day at best, and usually in two or three days.

However, our laboratory has proven that children who are fed immediately after childbirth are insured against postpartum weight loss, from the so-called physiological jaundice, from blood thickening and a decrease in the protein content in it. Our studies have shown that if the baby is immediately breastfed, the woman will have milk (otherwise it will appear after three days, and with difficulty). And the baby does not experience adverse changes during postpartum feeding. This is not surprising - after all, the first milk, called colostrum, is an extremely valuable product for a child. It contains a full set of not only nutrients, but also substances that increase the body's immunobiological resistance to infections, against which the newborn is defenseless. Physiologically immature children especially need such milk. If a weakened baby cannot suck, you need to express milk and give it, without sterilizing, from the bottle. I recommend feeding your baby 20-30 minutes after birth, in extreme cases no later than an hour. In 1980, this recommendation was formally proposed by the World Health Organization for general use.

The first week of a child's life is a critical period. At this time, it is decided whether he will adapt to the new conditions. The first week largely determines whether the child will get rid of physiological immaturity, or, on the contrary, it will worsen due to wrong actions.

But what if opportunities were missed during this important period? Can you do something at a later time? It's much more difficult! But it is quite possible. The experience of the Nikitins, Skripalevs and many other parents of physiologically immature children who later grew up healthy is a clear confirmation of this. Hardening, massage, gymnastics, a rational regimen of feeding and sleeping, early learning to swim in an apartment bath - these and other measures will greatly help the baby grow up strong and healthy, not afraid of colds and infections. Such a child will not cause unnecessary trouble to his parents and will be able to take full advantage of the favorable opportunities provided for education in kindergartens and kindergartens.

Five tips of professor I. A. Arshavsky for expectant mothers

1. The most important thing is to concentrate all your attention on the state of pregnancy, to subordinate all your actions to this state. Both the mom-to-be and those around her must deal with distractions that can cause damage and stress. Statistics show that loving, attentive spouses are more likely to have healthy children.

2. The unborn child constantly needs oxygen from the mother's blood. It was found that frequent breathing of a pregnant woman is very useful for him, causing hyperventilation, excess oxygen in the body. The optimal mode of hyperventilation is about 5 sessions of frequent breathing every day, lasting 1-2 minutes. This is done as follows: you need to sit on a chair and increase your breathing. This exercise is especially useful for late toxicosis. The generally accepted requirement to often ventilate the premises where a pregnant woman is located is precisely due to the need to create an excess of oxygen.

3. The future child needs a regime that stimulates his physical activity. This mode occurs when there is a periodic deficiency of oxygen and nutrients. The best way to create such a deficit is to occasionally exercise, which causes blood to drain from the fetus to actively working muscles. The most accessible forms of physical exercise for the expectant mother are walking (an average pace is desirable), climbing the stairs to the 2nd-4th floor, and general strengthening gymnastics.

4. The motor regime is necessary for the expectant mother not only in the interests of the child, but also in her own. This regimen should prepare her for childbirth and help ensure that her figure after childbirth is the same as before pregnancy. This will primarily help exercises aimed at strengthening the muscles of the abdomen, perineum, pelvic floor. There are a lot of such exercises, they are described in antenatal clinics, they all come down most often to bends, squats, leg raises from various positions at a slow and medium pace.

5. Nutrition should never be excessive. It is necessary that it be complete in proteins and somewhat excess in vitamins and microelements. Nutrition should provide the unborn child with everything necessary and at the same time not limit his activity. The task of nutrition in the interests of the expectant mother is not to weaken the body and at the same time help the woman after giving birth to maintain the same weight that she had before pregnancy.

Five tips of Professor I. A. Arshavsky for the first weeks of a child's life

1. In the first weeks of a child's life, the main attention should be paid to his physical activity during sleep. During this period, the child sleeps almost all the time. However, nature cannot allow such idleness. And now, a long expiration phase is periodically interwoven into the breathing of a sleeping baby. There is a deficiency of oxygen, a kind of "trigger" of motor activity. Reflex shaking occurs. As a result, the sleeping child spends 50-60 percent of the time actually in motion. The trouble is, tight swaddling prevents this. Do not interfere with the motor activity of a sleeping baby - this is the first piece of advice.

2. The most tangible stimulus for a baby's muscle activity is the difference in temperature between his body and the environment. The greater this difference, the more active muscle tone, which ensures normal development. Of course, the temperature difference should be limited to physiological, adaptive, stress. Each mother, having swaddled her baby, feels the tension of his muscles close at hand. As soon as the tension has subsided, the air bath should be stopped. It is the muscle tone that regulates the duration of the hardening procedures. At first, in a physiologically immature child, this period does not exceed 5-10 seconds, in a mature child it sometimes reaches 60 seconds.

3. Bathing is extremely important in a baby's life. During this procedure, it is necessary to develop the child's innate ability to stay afloat. For this there is a well-developed and proven methodology. I just want to pay attention to the water temperature. In our opinion, it should not exceed 32-34 degrees even during the first baths, since warmer water reduces muscle tone, inhibits the mechanisms of motor activity.

4. All physical activity of the child should be carried out not under compulsion, but due to the interest in this activity. In the first weeks of life, such interest is stimulated by motor reflexes caused by irritation of the soles, heels, fingers, and palms. It is important from the first weeks of life to promote the free development of the baby's abilities, helping him to independently show his activity.

5. Useful procedure and massage of the child - light stroking of his little body. Still, it is not decisive. There is only one advice - not to limit the physical development of the baby to massage, but to actively implement the first four recommendations.

Denis is ahead of time (shankman)

Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor S. B. Tikhvinsky, with whom you will meet on these pages, quite rightly asserts that the mother and father must take care of the health of their child long before conception. What is missed before birth can then be made up to some extent. But not always and with much greater costs. Isn't it easier to take care of our heirs in advance? As, for example, it was done in the Dubinin family of Muscovites. We do not urge everyone to follow their example. They proceeded from the specific circumstances of their lives. In other families, these circumstances may be different. But the main thing is the parents' sense of responsibility for the child's health, the desire not to spare their time and their efforts in order to prepare in the best way for the birth of the future citizen of our society. Steve Shankman reports.

The chronicle of this family is quite typical. Tatyana and Mikhail Dubinin had two boys: Kostya, who was born in 1973, and Maxim, born in 1975. Tatyana was not in good health, but she really wanted to have a daughter. After some hesitation, she decided to give birth to her third child. In 1978, Katya was born, a sickly, weakened girl. And Tatiana herself felt worse and worse. Angina prevailed, rheumatic changes in the mitral valve disturbed. Specialists from the rheumatic cardiological dispensary, where she was registered, conducted courses of drug treatment with her twice a year. Nevertheless, pain in the heart appeared more and more often.

Mikhail, a sports man, believed that it was not medicine that would save, but physical education. He persuaded his wife to start hardening, invited her to ski, ice skate, run, slipped her various books, subscribed to the journal "Physical Culture and Sport". For a while she was only a reader. Finally Tatiana made up her mind. But running was very hard. After 200 meters of a very slow run, she began to choke. She was terribly afraid of cold water, she could not swim. However, to Tatiana's surprise, it turned out that these difficulties were surmountable,

Together with their parents, children ran out to the wonderful Losinoostrovsky park to exercise. At first, we practiced not far from home, then we decided to do exercises near a beautiful forest lake, which is one and a half kilometers away. At first we walked there with a brisk pace, then we ran. Soon the round trip was not difficult for either Tatiana or the children. The second daily run - in the evening - turned out to be a forced matter: three children in one room did not fall asleep for a long time, they were naughty and excited each other; measured running calmed them down, relieved excessive excitement. For a year and a half, the evening distance grew to 6 kilometers, sometimes even 10 kilometers. We ran, focusing on the capabilities of the smallest - Katya. But these opportunities turned out to be unexpectedly great. At the age of five, she ran 10 kilometers in 1 hour 15 minutes, together with the elders she tried to run 1 5 and even 20 kilometers. And she did it not through force, but with pleasure.

Physical exercises became a favorite game for children, in which everything was interesting: new achievements, and competitive amusements, and the participation of parents. Therefore, any load was perceived easily and with curiosity. Especially the cold load, without which there is no hardening. Together with the adults, the children doused themselves with tap water every morning, rubbed themselves with snow in winter and ran along a 300-meter alley. In summer, every day, in any weather, we swam in the lake.

Gradually they began to get involved in winter swimming. The first, of course, was Mikhail. The next year - Tatiana with the eldest, Kostya, and a year later - Maxim and Katya.

This is what Tatiana tells about the new life of her family.

“We all get up at about half past six, wash, douse ourselves with cold water and run out of the house. After charging, we swim: longer in summer, one minute in winter. Then the way back at a run, and at 7.30-7.35 we are at home. We change clothes, have breakfast and at 8.00-8.10 we each go about their own business. My husband and I go to work, the children go to school. The youngest, Katya, is in the first grade. The older brothers prepared her well, played with her at home to school and thus taught her to count, write, subtract, add and even multiply. She proved to be very capable. We noticed: the earlier you start to deal with the child, the more his abilities are revealed.

In spring, summer and autumn we go hiking, in winter we love skiing. Over the years of physical culture life, we all got stronger. For example, my leg muscles supporting the arch of my foot were underdeveloped. The predisposition to flat feet was passed on to children. I was very tormented with my legs, especially during pregnancy, and then I could not even stand for a few minutes, I was constantly looking for somewhere to sit down, I wore shoes with special instep supports. The same thing threatened my children. Now, after running and special exercises included in the complex of our exercises, my legs do not get tired so much, I even began to wear fashionable shoes.

Another nuisance plagued me and the children. It's about myopia. Running and special exercises for the eyes (taken from the journal "Physical Culture and Sport") strengthened the eye muscles, this gave noticeable improvements.

Health improved and the mood rose accordingly. More and more time was freed up due to getting rid of diseases, visits to the clinic, medical procedures, and the search for scarce drugs. Joint classes have noticeably united the family, there were more common successes and joys, we began to understand each other better.

Our food has also changed. The share of vegetables, fruits and dairy products has significantly increased in it. Somehow, by itself, alcohol disappeared from the lives of adult members of our family (although we rarely used it before), it simply stopped giving pleasure.

Running, conditioning, balanced nutrition, special exercises allowed me to keep my figure, slender posture, fresh face without wrinkles and swelling. "

Tatiana and Mikhail regretted one thing, that they did not immediately, not from birth began to introduce their children to physical exercise and a healthy lifestyle. They thought, thought, and decided to have another child, the fourth. I must say that this happens in many families: after joining physical education and a healthy lifestyle, parents (even if they are not too young - Tatyana is now 34, Mikhail is 41) acquire new children in order to raise them hardened, strong, comprehensively developed ...

The fourth child was due to be born at the end of 1985. This means that he will receive a passport of a citizen of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 2001. What will he be, this citizen? How to help him become healthy and harmoniously developed? Tatiana and Mikhail took the answer to these questions very seriously.

Let's listen to Tatyana's story.

“I prepared for pregnancy in advance, persistently healing myself. When she got pregnant, she tried to continue her usual way of life. Up to 4.5 months I ran as usual, then began to gradually reduce the distance and pace. She did not stop daily swimming in the lake, dousing with water and walking barefoot. From April to November she slept in the loggia.

The nature of gymnastic exercises has somewhat changed in relation to capabilities and well-being. I still went to the bathhouse, to the steam room. In the summer, the whole family went to the sea (the fifth month of pregnancy), where I also swam and even sunbathed a little. Throughout her pregnancy, she ate vegetables, fruits, dairy products, meat dishes - 1-2 times a week. Thanks to such food, I didn't feel like drinking at all. Therefore, I did not have edema, toxicosis, dizziness, my legs did not get tired. "

Tatiana believes that she is very lucky with the timing. The most important periods - the beginning and end of pregnancy - fell on the cold season, which allowed her to successfully continue her usual hardening procedures. I mean, first of all, winter swimming. The last swimming in the hole took place on 5 December. The next day, she easily gave birth to a beautiful healthy baby boy. They called him Denis.

He weighed 3,500, from the first days he reacted to sound and light. After feeding he smiled. On the tenth day he held the head. This fact is documented: in the Dubinins' family album, I saw a color photo of Denis lying on his stomach, who, quite confidently raising his head, looked into the camera lens.

I must say that the experience of the Dubinin family is of particular value also because Mikhail Dubinin is a professional photographer. Of course, he takes pictures of his children and his wife especially a lot and willingly. Every day Denis is described in his diary and filmed.

On the fourth day after his birth, Denis took a half-hour walk. Soon he walked 2-3 times a day for an hour and a half. On the tenth day I began to learn to swim in a home bath. He slept with the window open, the temperature in the room at night dropped to plus 6-7 degrees. However, this did not prevent him from sleeping soundly until the morning.

Denis is growing and developing very quickly. For the first month, he stretched out 7 centimeters. It so happened that when, at the age of one month, he was brought to the clinic for examination and weighing, the district doctor was sick. The appointment was led by a pediatrician who did not know Denis. Seeing the boy, she said that she did not accept three-month-olds that day. She got angry when Tatiana began to assure that Denis was only a month old, she irritatedly said that she could somehow distinguish a one-month-old from a three-month-old by her appearance, reactions and facial expressions.

The kid does not tolerate wrapping. He sweats a lot in the cap. He is not forced to suffer from overheating. 1 On January 1 (a month and five days), he was swaddled for the first time on the street. The air temperature that day was minus 12 degrees. There is a photo that depicts that day naked Denis in her mother's arms, and next to them in the snow are barefoot and almost naked Kostya, Maxim and Katya.

On February 10, at a special seminar of the Center for European Nuclear Research (CERN, Geneva), the results of experiments were presented, which, without exaggeration, can be called sensational. A new state of matter has been obtained, in which quarks - "truly elementary particles" (from which, in particular, protons and neutrons are "collected") - are not connected with each other, but move freely. According to the theory, it was in this state that the Universe was for the first 10 microseconds after the Big Bang. Until now, the evolution of matter could be traced no earlier than to the stage of three minutes after the explosion, when the nuclei of atoms had already formed.

According to the modern theory of the structure of matter, microparticles, called hadrons, consist of quarks - structureless particles less than 10 -16 cm in size, which represent the limit of fragmentation of matter (see "Science and Life" No. 8, 1994). Quarks are held together by forces arising from continuous emission and absorption of gluons (from the English glue - "glue"). These forces behave in a paradoxical way: the closer the quarks are, the weaker they are. Inside a proton or neutron, quarks practically do not interact, but when trying to "break" a particle, their bond strengths increase millions of times. Therefore, quarks and gluons can be freed only by spending colossal energy. It was obtained in a heavy ion accelerator.

Professor Luciano Maiani, Director General of CERN, believes that the comparison of the results obtained in the framework of the acceleration of heavy ions gave a clear picture of a new state of matter and confirmed the prediction of quark theory. It is equally important that a big step has been taken towards understanding the earliest stages of the evolution of the Universe. For the first time, it was possible to obtain matter in which quarks and gluons are not bound - quark-gluon plasma. This new, fifth, state of matter (until now, the solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma, electron-ionic states were known) opens up a vast field for scientific research. Their next stage will begin at colliders (accelerators on colliding beams) of heavy relativistic ions at Brookhaven (USA) and hadrons at CERN.

The experiment on the acceleration of heavy ions was as follows. The lead ion beam was accelerated to an energy of 33 TeV (1 teraelectronvolt = 10 12 eV) in a super accelerator of protons (CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron), after which it hit the targets located in seven detectors. 100 thousand times more than inside the Sun), and the energy density was 20 times higher than the density of nuclear matter.Under these conditions, as the experimental data irrefutably testify, matter passes into a new state that has much in common with the previously predicted theoretically quark-gluon plasma - "primitive soup" in which quarks and gluons existed separately.

The research program began in 1994, after the CERN accelerators were improved with the participation of a number of institutes in the Czech Republic, France, India, Italy, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland. The new lead ion source was connected to the previously built proton synchrotron (which carried out preliminary ion acceleration) and the proton super accelerator. Seven laborious experiments were carried out to measure various parameters of lead-lead and lead-gold collisions (they were named NA44, NA45, NA49, NA50, NA52, WA97 / NA57 and WA98). Some of them were carried out using multipurpose detectors, which made it possible to register many different particles and obtain global characteristics of events. In other experiments, on the contrary, signal accumulation detectors recorded only rare phenomena. Thus, a general idea of ​​the quark-gluon plasma was obtained from separate "experimental pieces", just as "puzzles" (puzzle pictures) or mosaics are assembled. The data of each individual experiment did not allow any definite conclusions to be drawn, but together they made it possible to form a clear picture of the phenomenon. The methodology based on the comparison of several different results has been very successful.

The implemented project is an excellent example of cooperation and cooperation in the field of physics research. Physicists from more than twenty countries, including Russian nuclear scientists, took part in the experiments.

The results obtained at CERN are an incentive to continue the work. To confirm that the new matter is indeed a quark-gluon plasma, it is necessary to study its properties at higher and lower temperatures. The research center for the fifth state of matter will now be the Heavy Relativistic Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory; work there will begin this year. It is supposed to investigate the collision of gold nuclei accelerated to an energy 10 times higher than in the Geneva experiment.

A year ago, letters appeared in American newspapers and popular science magazines claiming that the planned experiment was dangerous. Their authors believed that the release of extremely high energy in a very small volume can lead to the formation of a "black mini-hole", which will begin to suck in the surrounding matter. This opinion received such a strong response in the press and on television that American researchers assembled an authoritative expert committee to check it. The conclusion was unequivocal: such fears are unfounded; the probability of "hole" formation is zero.

And starting in 2005, experiments with heavy ions will also be included in the Large Hadron Collaider (LHC) program at CERN.

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| 21-36

In the laboratory, five experiments were carried out to observe diffraction using various diffraction gratings. Each of the gratings was illuminated by parallel beams of monochromatic light with a certain wavelength. In all cases, the light was incident perpendicular to the grating. In two of these experiments, the same number of main diffraction maxima were observed. First indicate the number of the experiment in which a diffraction grating with a shorter period was used, and then the number of the experiment in which a diffraction grating with a longer period was used.

Solution.

The condition for the interference maxima of the diffraction grating is as follows: The gratings will give the same number of maxima, provided that these maxima are observed at the same angles.From the table we find that in experiments 2 and 4 the same number of maxima is observed so that number 4, the lattice number 2 has a larger period.

Answer: 42.

Answer: 42

Source: Training work in physics 04/28/2017, option FI10503

The optical scheme is a diffraction grating and a screen located nearby parallel to it. A parallel beam of white light visible to the eye normally falls on the grating.

Select the correct statement, if any.

A. This optical design allows a set of rainbow diffraction fringes to be observed on the screen.

B. In order to obtain an image of the diffraction maxima on the screen, it is necessary to install a collecting lens in the path of the light beam, in the focal plane of which a diffraction grating must be located.

1) only A

2) only B

4) neither A nor B

Solution.

The diffraction grating gives maxima in the directions specified by the condition where is the grating period, and is the order of the maximum. As you can see, this condition depends on the wavelength, therefore, light of different frequencies is refracted by the diffraction grating in a slightly different way. This, in principle, makes it possible to see the rainbow spectrum of light.

However, all rays corresponding to a certain maximum and a certain wavelength, after passing through the diffraction grating, propagate parallel to each other, thereby forming a parallel beam of light. Such a parallel beam cannot give a clear image on a nearby screen, therefore, statement A for this optical system turns out to be incorrect. The situation would be saved by a converging lens, which must be positioned so that its focal plane coincides with the screen. As you know, a thin lens collects any parallel beam of light to a point located on the focal plane. However, statement B proposes to put such a lens differently. Thus, we can conclude that B.

Answer: 4.

Answer: 4

Anton

Valentina Gizbrecht 16.06.2016 13:32

The text of the problem says "can be observed", hence the eyes are included in the scheme of the experiment. Then why is answer A wrong?

Anton

"Observe on screen»

If you look with the eye, you will see a rainbow, but if you put the screen and look at it, then you will not.

Light with a wavelength of angstroms falls normally onto the diffraction grating. One of the main diffraction maxima corresponds to a diffraction angle of 30 °, and the highest order of the observed spectrum is 5. Find the period of the given grating.

Help: 1 angstrom = 10 −10 m.

Solution.

The condition for observing the main maxima for the diffraction grating has the form In this problem, the diffraction angle corresponds to the unknown order of the main maximum, so that where the grating period is unknown, and is an integer.

The highest order of the observed spectrum corresponds to the diffraction angle, so that the grating period is

Substituting this value of the period into the formula for the order of the diffraction maximum, we obtain the Nearest integer greater than this value is 3, therefore the grating period is

Answer:

3) If you decrease the wavelength of the incident light, then the distance on the screen between the zero and the first diffraction maxima will decrease.

4) If you replace the lens with another one with a larger focal length, and position the screen so that the distance from the lens to the screen is still equal to the focal length of the lens, then the distance on the screen between the zero and first diffraction maxima will decrease.

5) If we replace the diffraction grating with another one with a longer period, then the angle at which the first diffraction maximum is observed will increase.

Solution.

m... The beam of rays after a thin lens, according to the rules for constructing images in it, is collected at a point in the focal plane of the lens.

d, after her okay m a parallel beam of light is obtained, traveling at such an angle that the maximum order of magnitude is determined by the ratio:

If the wavelength of the incident light is increased, then the maximum order of the observed diffraction maxima will not increase. 2 - wrong.

If you reduce the wavelength of the incident light, then according to the basic equation, this will lead to a decrease in the angles and, as a consequence, the distance between the first and zero maximum on the screen will decrease. 3 - true.

If we replace the diffraction grating with a grating with a large period, then according to the main equation this will lead to a decrease in the angles and, as a consequence, we will observe the first diffraction maximum on the screen at a smaller angle. 5 is incorrect.

Answer: 13.

Answer: 13 | 31

Which figure correctly shows the relative position of the diffraction grating P, lens L and screen E, at which the diffraction of a parallel light beam C can be observed?

Solution.

The correct mutual arrangement is shown in Figure 4. First, the diffraction of light C in the diffraction grating P should occur. After passing through the grating, the light will go in several parallel beams corresponding to different diffraction maxima. Then it is necessary to collect these parallel beams in the focal plane, this is done by the collecting lens L. Finally, it is necessary to place a screen in order to observe focused diffraction maxima on it (in the figure, different diffraction maxima are depicted in different colors for convenience).

Answer: 4.

Answer: 4

Light with an unknown wavelength falls normally onto a diffraction grating with a period and one of the main diffraction maxima corresponds to a diffraction angle of 30 °. In this case, the largest order of the observed spectrum is 5. Find the wavelength of the light incident on the grating and express it in angstroms.

Reference: 1 angstrom = 10 −10 m.

Solution.

The condition for observing the main maxima for the diffraction grating has the form In this problem, the diffraction angle corresponds to the unknown order of the main maximum, so that where the wavelength is unknown and is an integer.

The highest order of the observed spectrum corresponds to the diffraction angle so that the wavelength is equal to or

Substituting this inequality for the wavelength into the formula of the order of the diffraction maximum, we obtain the Nearest integer greater than this value is 3, so the wavelength is

Answer:

The figure shows four diffraction gratings. The maximum period has a diffraction grating numbered

Solution.

The minimum distance through which the lines are repeated on the grating is called the period of the diffraction grating. The figure shows that on the first and second gratings, the strokes are repeated after three divisions, on the third - after two, and on the fourth - after four divisions. Thus, diffraction grating number 4 has the maximum period.

Answer: 4

Answer: 4

The figure shows four diffraction gratings. The diffraction grating has the minimum period

Solution.

The minimum distance through which the lines are repeated on the grating is called the period of the diffraction grating. The figure shows that on the first and second gratings, the strokes are repeated after three divisions, on the third - after two, and on the fourth - after four divisions. Thus, diffraction grating number 3 has the minimum period.

Answer: 3

Answer: 3

The diffraction grating, which has 1000 lines per 1 mm of its length, is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light with a wavelength of 420 nm. Light falls perpendicular to the grating. Close to the diffraction grating, immediately behind it, is a thin converging lens. Behind the grating at a distance equal to the focal length of the lens, parallel to the grating, there is a screen on which the diffraction pattern is observed. Pick two true statements.

1) The maximum order of the observed diffraction maxima is 2.

2) If the wavelength of the incident light is increased, then the maximum order of the observed diffraction maxima will increase.

3) If you decrease the wavelength of the incident light, then the distance on the screen between the zero and the first diffraction maxima will increase.

4) If you replace the lens with another one with a larger focal length, and position the screen so that the distance from the lens to the screen is still equal to the focal length of the lens, then the distance on the screen between the zero and first diffraction maxima will not change.

5) If we replace the diffraction grating with another one with a longer period, then the angle at which the first diffraction maximum is observed from the side of the screen will decrease.

Solution.

First, let us construct the path of parallel rays from the source passing through the diffraction grating and the lens to the screen, where a spectrum of the order of m(for any one spectral line of mercury with a wavelength). The beam of rays after a thin lens, according to the rules for constructing images in it, is collected at a point in the focal plane of the lens.

According to the basic equation for the angles of deflection of light with a wavelength by a grating with a period d after her ok m a parallel beam of light is obtained, traveling at such an angle that the maximum order of order will be observed at:

If the wavelength of the incident light is increased, then the maximum order of the observed diffraction maxima will not change or decrease. 2 - wrong.

If you reduce the wavelength of the incident light, this will lead to a decrease in the angle between the zero and the first diffraction maxima and, as a consequence, to a decrease in the distance between the zero and the first maximum on the screen. 3 - wrong.

According to the rules for constructing rays in a converging lens, a lens with a large focal length will increase the distance between the zero and first maximum. 4 is incorrect.

If the diffraction grating is replaced by a grating with a long period, this will lead to a decrease in the angle at which the first diffraction maximum is observed. 5 - true.

Answer: 15.

Answer: 15

In the laboratory, five experiments were carried out to observe diffraction using various diffraction gratings. Each of the gratings was illuminated by parallel beams of monochromatic light with a certain wavelength. In all cases, the light was incident perpendicular to the grating. First indicate the number of the experiment in which the smallest number of main diffraction maxima were observed, and then the number of the experiment in which the largest number of main diffraction maxima were observed.

Solution.

The condition for the interference maxima of the diffraction grating has the form: In this case, the more, the fewer the diffraction maxima will be seen. Thus, the smallest number of main diffraction maxima were observed in experiment number 5, and the largest number - in experiment number 1.

Answer: 51.

Answer: 51

Source: Training work in physics 04/28/2017, option FI10504

A monochromatic light beam is normally incident on a diffraction grating with a period, and behind the grating there is an objective, in the focal plane of which diffraction maxima are observed (see figure). Dots indicate diffraction maxima, and numbers indicate their numbers. The diffraction angles are small.

This diffraction grating is alternately replaced by other diffraction gratings - A and B. Establish a correspondence between the patterns of diffraction maxima and the periods of the diffraction gratings used.

We are used to thinking of ourselves as intelligent, independent people who are not inclined to inexplicable manifestations of cruelty or indifference. In fact, this is not at all the case - in certain circumstances, homo sapiens are surprisingly easy to part with their "humanity."

Asch's Experiment, 1951

The research focused on the study of conformity in groups. Volunteer students were allegedly invited for an eye test. The subject was in a group with seven actors, whose results were not taken into account when summing up the results. Young people were shown a card with a vertical line. Then they were shown another card, where three lines were already depicted - the participants were asked to determine which of them corresponded in size to the line from the first card. The subject's opinions were asked last.

A similar procedure was carried out 18 times. In the first two runs, the agreed participants called the correct answers, which was not difficult, since the coincidence of the lines on all the cards was obvious. But then they began to unanimously adhere to the obviously wrong option. Sometimes one or two actors in the group were instructed to choose the correct options 12 times. But despite this, the subjects experienced extreme discomfort that their opinion did not coincide with the opinion of the majority.

As a result, 75% of students were not ready to oppose the majority opinion at least once - they pointed to a false option, despite the obvious visual inconsistency of the lines. 37% of all answers were false, and only one subject from a control group of thirty-five people made one mistake. Moreover, if the participants in the group disagreed or when there were two independent subjects in the group, the probability of making a mistake decreased four times.

What does this say about us?

People are highly dependent on the opinion of the group in which they are. Even if it is contrary to common sense or our convictions, it does not mean that we will be able to resist it. As long as there is even a ghostly threat of condemnation from others, it can be much easier for us to drown out our inner voice than to defend our position.

The Good Samaritan Experiment, 1973

The parable of the Good Samaritan tells how a traveler gratuitously helped a wounded and robbed man on the road, by whom all the others passed. Psychologists Daniel Baston and John Darley decided to test how much such moral imperatives affect a person's behavior in a stressful situation.

One group of seminary students was told the parable of the Good Samaritan and then asked to preach a sermon on what they had heard on another campus building. The second group was tasked with preparing a speech on various job opportunities. At the same time, some of the subjects were asked to especially hurry up on the way to the audience. On the way from one building to another, students met a man lying on the ground in an empty alley who looked like he needed help.

It turned out that the students who prepared the speech about the Good Samaritan on the way reacted to such an emergency situation in the same way as the second group of subjects - only time constraints influenced their decision. Only 10% of seminarians who were asked to come to the classroom as soon as possible helped a stranger - even if not long before they heard a lecture about the importance of helping a neighbor in a difficult situation.

What does this say about us?

It is surprisingly easy for us to abandon religion or any other ethical imperative when it suits us. People tend to justify their indifference with the words "this does not concern me", "I still cannot help anything" or "they will cope here without me." Most often this happens not during disasters or crisis situations, but in the course of everyday life.

The Indifferent Bystander Experiment, 1968

In 1964, a criminal attack on a woman, which was repeated twice within half an hour, ended in her death on the way to the hospital. More than a dozen people became witnesses to the crime (in its sensational publication, Time magazine mistakenly pointed to 38 people), and nevertheless, no one bothered to treat the incident with due attention. Based on these events, John Darley and Beebe Latane decided to conduct their own psychological experiment.

They invited volunteers to participate in the discussion. Hoping that extremely sensitive issues would be discussed, the agreed participants were asked to communicate remotely - using intercom. During the conversation, one of the interlocutors simulated an epileptic seizure, which could be clearly recognized by the sounds from the speakers. When the conversation took place one-on-one, 85% of the subjects reacted vividly to what happened and tried to help the victim. But in a situation where the participant in the experiment believed that in addition to him, 4 more people were participating in the conversation, only 31% had the strength to make an attempt to somehow influence the situation. Everyone else thought that someone else should do it.

What does this say about us?

If you think that a large number of people around you ensure your safety, this is not at all the case. The crowd can be indifferent to the misfortune of others, especially when people from marginal groups find themselves in a difficult situation. As long as there is someone else nearby, we are happy to shift responsibility for what is happening to him.

Stanford Prison Experiment, 1971

The US Navy wanted to better understand the nature of conflicts in its correctional facilities, so the department agreed to pay for an experiment by behavioral psychologist Philip Zimbardo. The scientist equipped the basement of Stanford University as a prison and invited male volunteers to take on the roles of guards and prisoners, all of whom were college students.

The participants had to pass a test for health and mental stability, after which they were divided by lot into two groups of 12 people - overseers and prisoners. The guards wore uniforms from the military store that mirrored the actual uniforms of the prison overseers. They were also given wooden clubs and mirrored sunglasses, behind which they could not see their eyes. The inmates were provided with uncomfortable clothes without underwear and rubber slippers. They were only called by the numbers that were sewn onto the uniform. They also could not remove the small chains from their ankles, which were supposed to constantly remind them of their imprisonment. At the beginning of the experiment, the prisoners were allowed to go home. From there, they were allegedly arrested by the state police, who facilitated the experiment. They went through the procedure of fingerprinting, photographing and reading out their rights. Then they were stripped naked, examined and assigned numbers.

Unlike the inmates, the guards worked in shifts, but many of them happily went to work overtime during the experiment. All subjects received $ 15 per day ($ 85 inflation adjusted for 2012). Zimbardo himself acted as the chief administrator of the prison. The experiment was supposed to last 4 weeks. The guards were given one and only task - a bypass of the prison, which they could carry out as they wanted, but without the use of force on the prisoners.

On the second day, the prisoners staged a riot, during which they barricaded the entrance to the cell with beds and teased the guards. They responded by using fire extinguishers to calm the unrest. Soon they were already forcing their charges to sleep naked on bare concrete, and the opportunity to use the shower became a privilege for the prisoners. Terrible unsanitary conditions began to spread in the prison - prisoners were denied access to the toilet outside the cell, and the buckets they used to relieve needs were forbidden to be cleaned as punishment.

Every third guard showed sadistic inclinations - the prisoners were bullied, some were forced to wash the drain barrels with their bare hands. Two of them were so mentally traumatized that they had to be excluded from the experiment. One of the new participants, who replaced the dropped out, was so shocked by what he saw that he soon went on a hunger strike. In retaliation, he was placed in a cramped closet - a solitary cell. Other inmates were given the choice of giving up blankets or leaving the troublemaker alone overnight. Only one person agreed to donate their comfort. About 50 observers watched the work of the prison, but only the girl Zimbardo, who came to conduct several interviews with the participants in the experiment, was outraged by what was happening. The Stamford prison was closed six days after people were sent there. Many guards expressed regret that the experiment ended ahead of time.

What does this say about us?

People very quickly accept the social roles imposed on them and are so much carried away by their own power that the line of what is permissible in relation to others is rapidly erased from them. The participants in the Stanford Experiment were not sadists, they were just ordinary people. Like, perhaps, many Nazi soldiers or torture overseers at Abu Ghraib prison. Higher education and strong mental health did not stop the subjects from using violence against those people over whom they had power.

The Milgram Experiment, 1961

During the Nuremberg trials, many convicted Nazis justified their actions by the fact that they were simply following someone else's orders. Military discipline did not allow them to disobey, even if they did not like the instructions themselves. Curious about these circumstances, Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram decided to test how far people can go in causing harm to others, if it is part of their job.

Participants in the experiment were recruited for a small fee from among volunteers, none of whom raised concerns among the experimenters. At the very beginning, the roles of "student" and "teacher" were supposedly played out between the subject and the specially trained actor, and the subject always got the second role. After that, the actor-"student" was demonstratively tied to a chair with electrodes, and the "teacher" was given an introductory current discharge of 45 V and taken to another room. There he was seated behind a generator, where 30 switches were located from 15 to 450 V with a step of 15 V. Under the control of the experimenter - a man in a white coat who was in the room all the time - the "teacher" had to check the memorization of the set by the "student" pairs of associations that were read to him in advance. For every mistake, he received a punishment in the form of a current discharge. With each new error, the category increased. The radio button groups have been signed. The final caption said the following: "Dangerous: a hard-to-bear blow." The last two radio buttons were outside the groups, were graphically separated and marked with an "X X X" marker. The "student" answered with four buttons, his answer was indicated on a light board in front of the teacher. The "teacher" and his ward were separated by a blank wall.

If the “teacher” hesitated when assigning a punishment, the experimenter, whose persistence increased as doubts increased, with the help of specially prepared phrases persuaded him to continue. At the same time, he could not threaten the "teacher" in any way. Upon reaching 300 volts, clear blows to the wall were heard from the "student" room, after which the "student" stopped answering questions. Silence for 10 seconds was interpreted by the experimenter as an incorrect answer, and he asked to increase the impact power. On the next discharge of 315 volts, even more persistent blows were repeated, after which the "student" stopped responding to questions. A little later, in another version of the experiment, the rooms were not as strongly soundproofed, and the "student" warned in advance that he had heart problems and twice complained of poor health at discharges of 150 and 300 volts. In the latter case, he refused to continue his participation in the experiment and began to scream loudly from behind the wall when new blows were assigned to him. After 350 V, he stopped giving signs of life, continuing to receive current discharges. The experiment was considered complete when the “teacher” applied the maximum possible punishment three times.

65% of all subjects reached the last switch and did not stop until the experimenter asked them to. Only 12.5% ​​refused to continue right after the victim knocked on the wall for the first time - everyone else continued to press the button even after the answers stopped coming from behind the wall. Later, this experiment was carried out many more times - in other countries and circumstances, with or without remuneration, with male and female groups - if the basic basic conditions remained unchanged, at least 60% of the subjects reached the end of the scale - despite their own stress and discomfort.

What does this say about us?

Even being severely depressed, contrary to all the forecasts of experts, the overwhelming majority of the subjects were ready to conduct fatal electric shocks through a stranger only because there was a man in a white coat nearby who told them to do it. Most people are surprisingly easy to follow the lead of authorities, even if it has devastating or tragic consequences.