Biochemical analysis - the study of a wide range of enzymes, organic and mineral substances. This analysis of metabolism in the human body: carbohydrate, mineral, fat and protein. Changes in metabolism show whether there is any pathology and in which organ.

This analysis is done if the doctor suspects a latent disease. The result of the analysis is the pathology in the body at the very initial stage of development, and the specialist can navigate the choice of drugs.

With this analysis, you can detect leukemia at an early stage, when the symptoms have not yet begun to appear. In this case, you can start taking the necessary drugs and stop the pathological process of the disease.

Sampling process and values ​​of analysis indicators

For analysis, blood is taken from a vein, about five to ten milliliters. It is placed in a special test tube. The analysis is carried out on an empty stomach of the patient, for more complete truthfulness. If there is no risk to health, it is recommended not to take medications before blood tests.

For the interpretation of the analysis results, the most informative indicators are used:
- the level of glucose and sugar - an increased indicator characterizes the development of diabetes mellitus in humans, a sharp decrease in it poses a threat to life;
- cholesterol - its increased content indicates the presence of vascular atherosclerosis and the risk of cardiovascular diseases;
- transaminases - enzymes that detect diseases such as myocardial infarction, liver damage (hepatitis), or the presence of any injury;
- bilirubin - its high values ​​indicate liver damage, massive destruction of red blood cells and impaired outflow of bile;
- urea and creatine - their excess indicates a weakening of the excretion function of the kidneys and liver;
- total protein - its indicators change when a serious illness or any negative process occurs in the body;
- amylase - is an enzyme of the pancreas, an increase in its level in the blood indicates an inflammation of the gland - pancreatitis.

In addition to the above, a biochemical blood test determines the content of potassium, iron, phosphorus and chlorine in the body. Only the attending physician can decipher the analysis results, who will prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Biochemistry is a science that studies various molecules, chemical reactions and processes in living cells and organisms. A thorough knowledge of biochemistry is absolutely necessary for the successful development of two main areas of biomedical sciences: 1) solving the problems of maintaining human health; 2) elucidation of the causes of various diseases and finding ways to effectively treat them.

BIOCHEMISTRY & HEALTH

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of "complete physical, spiritual and social well-being, which is not limited to the simple absence of disease and ailment." From a strictly biochemical point of view, an organism can be considered healthy if many thousands of reactions occurring inside cells and in the extracellular environment proceed under such conditions and at such rates that ensure the maximum viability of the organism and maintain a physiologically normal (non-pathological) state.

BIOCHEMISTRY, NUTRITION, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT

One of the main prerequisites for staying healthy is an optimal diet that contains a variety of chemicals; the main ones are vitamins, some amino acids, some fatty acids, various minerals and water. All these substances are of one kind or another interest both for biochemistry and for the science of rational nutrition. Consequently, there is a close connection between these two sciences. In addition, it can be assumed that, against the background of efforts to contain the growth of prices for medical services, increasing attention will be paid to maintaining health and preventing disease, i.e. preventive medicine. So, for example, in order to prevent atherosclerosis and cancer over time, it is likely that more and more importance will be attached to a balanced diet. At the same time, the concept of a balanced diet should be based on knowledge of biochemistry.

BIOCHEMISTRY AND DISEASES

All diseases are a manifestation of some changes in the properties of molecules and disturbances in the course of chemical reactions and processes. The main factors leading to the development of diseases in animals and humans are given in table. 1.1. They all affect one or more key chemical reactions or the structure and properties of functionally important molecules.

The contribution of biochemical research to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases is as follows.

Table 1.1. The main factors leading to the development of diseases. All of them have an impact on various biochemical processes in the cell or the whole body.

1. Physical factors: mechanical injury, extreme temperature, sudden changes in atmospheric pressure, radiation, electric shock

2. Chemical agents and drugs: some toxic compounds, therapeutic drugs, etc.

4. Oxygen starvation: loss of blood, impaired oxygen-carrying function, poisoning of oxidative enzymes

5. Genetic factors: congenital, molecular

6. Immunological reactions: anaphylaxis, autoimmune diseases

7. Nutritional imbalance: malnutrition, overnutrition

Thanks to these studies, you can 1) identify the cause of the disease; 2) propose a rational and effective way of treatment; 3) to develop methods for mass screening of the population for the purpose of early diagnosis; 4) monitor the course of the disease; 5) monitor the effectiveness of treatment. The Appendix describes the most important biochemical tests used to diagnose various diseases. It will be useful to refer to this Appendix whenever it comes to biochemical diagnostics of various diseases (for example, myocardial infarction, acute pancreatitis, etc.).

The potential of biochemistry in the prevention and treatment of disease is briefly illustrated with three examples; we will look at a few more examples later in the chapter.

1. It is well known that in order to maintain his health, a person must receive certain complex organic compounds - vitamins. In the body, vitamins are converted into more complex molecules (coenzymes), which play a key role in many reactions in cells. Lack of any of the vitamins in the diet can lead to the development of various diseases, for example, scurvy with a lack of vitamin C or rickets with a lack of vitamin D. Elucidating the key role of vitamins or their biologically active derivatives has become one of the main tasks that biochemists and nutritionists have been solving since the beginning. this century.

2. A condition known as phenylketonuria (PKU), if left untreated, can lead to severe mental retardation. The biochemical nature of PKU has been known for about 30 years: the disease is caused by a lack or complete lack of activity of an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of the amino acid phenylalanine to another amino acid, tyrosine. Insufficient activity of this enzyme leads to the accumulation of an excess of phenylalanine and some of its metabolites, in particular ketones, in the tissues, which adversely affects the development of the central nervous system. After the biochemical foundations of PKU were clarified, a rational method of treatment was found: sick children are prescribed a diet with a low phenylalanine content. Mass examination of newborns for PKU allows, if necessary, to start treatment immediately.

3. Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease of the exocrine glands, and in particular the sweat glands. The cause of the disease is unknown. Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common genetic diseases in North America. It is characterized by abnormally viscous secretions that block the secretory ducts of the pancreas and bronchioles. Sufferers of this disease most often die at an early age from a lung infection. Since the molecular basis of the disease is unknown, only symptomatic treatment is possible. However, one can hope that in the near future, using recombinant DNA technology, it will be possible to elucidate the molecular nature of the disease, which will make it possible to find a more effective method of treatment.

FORMAL DEFINITION OF BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry, as the name suggests (from the Greek bios-life), is the chemistry of life, or, more strictly, the science of the chemical foundations of life processes.

The structural unit of living systems is a cell, therefore another definition can be given: biochemistry as a science studies the chemical components of living cells, as well as the reactions and processes in which they are involved. According to this definition, biochemistry encompasses broad areas of cell biology and all of molecular biology.

PROBLEMS OF BIOCHEMISTRY

The main task of biochemistry is to achieve a complete understanding at the molecular level of the nature of all chemical processes associated with the vital activity of cells.

To solve this problem, it is necessary to isolate from the cells the numerous compounds that are there, determine their structure and establish their functions. As an example, we can point to numerous studies aimed at elucidating the molecular basis of muscle contraction and a number of similar processes. As a result, many compounds of varying degrees of complexity were isolated in purified form, and detailed structural and functional studies were carried out. As a result, it was possible to elucidate a number of aspects of the molecular basis of muscle contraction.

Another task of biochemistry is to clarify the question of the origin of life. Our understanding of this exciting process is far from exhaustive.

FIELDS OF RESEARCH

The field of biochemistry is as broad as life itself. Wherever life exists, various chemical processes take place. Biochemistry deals with the study of chemical reactions in microorganisms, plants, insects, fish, birds, lower and higher mammals, and in particular in the human body. For students studying biomedical sciences, of particular interest are

the last two sections. However, it would be shortsighted not to have any idea about the biochemical characteristics of some other forms of life: often these features are essential for understanding various kinds of situations that are directly related to humans.

BIOCHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE

There is a wide two-way relationship between biochemistry and medicine. Thanks to biochemical research, it was possible to answer many questions related to the development of diseases, and the study of the causes and course of development of some diseases led to the creation of new areas of biochemistry.

Biochemical studies aimed at identifying the causes of diseases

In addition to the above, we will provide four more examples to illustrate the breadth of the range of possible applications of biochemistry. 1. Analysis of the mechanism of action of the toxin produced by the causative agent of cholera made it possible to clarify important points regarding the clinical symptoms of the disease (diarrhea, dehydration). 2. In many African plants, the content of one or more essential amino acids is very low. Revealing this fact made it possible to understand why those people for whom these plants are the main source of protein suffer from protein deficiency. 3. It was found that mosquitoes - carriers of malaria pathogens - can develop biochemical systems that make them immune to insecticides; this is important to consider when designing an anti-malaria response. 4. Greenlandic Eskimos consume large quantities of fish oil, rich in some polyunsaturated fatty acids; at the same time, it is known that they are characterized by a low level of cholesterol in the blood, and therefore atherosclerosis develops much less frequently. These observations suggested the possibility of using polyunsaturated fatty acids to lower plasma cholesterol.

The study of diseases promotes the development of biochemistry

Observations of the English physician Sir Archibald Garrod back in the early 1900s. for a small group of patients suffering from congenital metabolic disorders, they stimulated the study of biochemical pathways, the violation of which occurs in such conditions. Efforts to understand the nature of a genetic disorder called familial hypercholesterolemia, which leads to the development of severe atherosclerosis at an early age, has contributed to the rapid accumulation of knowledge about cellular receptors and the mechanisms of cholesterol absorption by cells. Intensive study of oncogenes in cancer cells has drawn attention to the molecular mechanisms of cell growth control.

Study of lower organisms and viruses

Valuable information, which turned out to be very useful for conducting biochemical research in the clinic, was obtained from the study of some lower organisms and viruses. For example, modern theories of the regulation of gene and enzyme activity were formed on the basis of pioneering research carried out on molds and bacteria. Recombinant DNA technology originated from research done on bacteria and bacterial viruses. The main advantage of bacteria and viruses as objects of biochemical research is the high rate of their reproduction; this greatly facilitates genetic analysis and genetic manipulation. The information obtained in the study of viral genes responsible for the development of some forms of cancer in animals (viral oncogenes) made it possible to better understand the mechanism of transformation of normal human cells into cancer cells.

BIOCHEMISTRY AND OTHER BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

The biochemistry of nucleic acids is at the very foundation of genetics; in turn, the use of genetic approaches turned out to be fruitful for many areas of biochemistry. Physiology, the science of the functioning of the body, overlaps very strongly with biochemistry. A large number of biochemical methods are used in immunology, and in turn, many immunological approaches are widely used by biochemists. Pharmacology and pharmacy are based on biochemistry and physiology; the metabolism of most drugs is carried out as a result of appropriate enzymatic reactions. Poisons affect biochemical reactions or processes; these questions are the subject of toxicology. As we have already said, at the heart of different types of pathology is a violation of a number of chemical processes. This leads to the increasing use of biochemical approaches to study various types of pathology (for example, inflammation, cell damage, and cancer). Many of those who are engaged in zoology and botany widely use biochemical approaches in their work. These relationships are not surprising, since, as we know, life in all its manifestations depends on a variety of biochemical reactions and processes. The pre-existing barriers between the biological sciences are virtually destroyed, and biochemistry is increasingly becoming their common language.

BIOCHEMISTRY (biological chemistry)- biological science, which studies the chemical nature of substances that make up living organisms, their transformations and the relationship of these transformations with the activity of organs and tissues. The set of processes inextricably linked with life is called metabolism (see. Metabolism and Energy).

The study of the composition of living organisms has long attracted the attention of scientists, since the number of substances that make up living organisms, in addition to water, mineral elements, lipids, carbohydrates, etc., includes a number of the most complex organic compounds: proteins and their complexes with a number of other biopolymers primarily with nucleic acids.

The possibility of spontaneous combining (under certain conditions) of a large number of protein molecules with the formation of complex supramolecular structures, for example, the protein cover of the phage tail, some cellular organelles, etc., has been established. This made it possible to introduce the concept of self-assembling systems. This kind of research creates the preconditions for solving the problem of the formation of the most complex supramolecular structures with the characteristics and properties of living matter from high molecular weight organic compounds that once emerged in nature by an abiogenic route.

Modern biology as an independent science took shape at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until that time, the issues now considered by B. were studied from different angles by organic chemistry and physiology. Organic chemistry (see), which studies carbon compounds in general, is engaged, in particular, in the analysis and synthesis of those chem. compounds that are part of living tissue. Physiology (see), along with the study of vital functions, also studies chem. processes underlying life. Thus, biochemistry is a product of the development of these two sciences and it can be divided into two parts: static (or structural) and dynamic. Static biology studies natural organic substances, their analysis and synthesis, while dynamic biology studies the entire set of chemical transformations of various organic compounds in the process of life. Dynamic biochemistry, thus, is closer to physiology and medicine than to organic chemistry. This explains what at the beginning B. was called physiological (or medical) chemistry.

Like any rapidly developing science, biochemistry soon after its inception began to divide into a number of separate disciplines: biochemistry of humans and animals, biochemistry of plants, biochemistry of microbes (microorganisms), and a number of others, since, despite the biochemical unity of all living things, in animal and plant organisms there are also fundamental differences in the nature of metabolism. First of all, this concerns the processes of assimilation. Plants, unlike animal organisms, have the ability to use such simple chemicals as carbon dioxide, water, salts of nitric and nitrous acids, ammonia, etc. to build their bodies. Moreover, the process of building plant cells requires an influx of energy from the outside into the form of sunlight. The use of this energy is primarily carried out by green autotrophic organisms (plants, protozoa - Euglena, a number of bacteria), which in turn themselves serve as food for everyone else, the so-called. heterotrophic organisms (including humans) inhabiting the biosphere (see). Thus, the separation of plant biochemistry into a special discipline is justified from both theoretical and practical sides.

The development of a number of branches of industry and agriculture (processing of raw materials of vegetable and animal origin, preparation of food products, production of vitamin and hormonal preparations, antibiotics, etc.) led to the separation of technical biology into a special section.

When studying the chemistry of various microorganisms, researchers encountered a number of specific substances and processes of great scientific and practical interest (antibiotics of microbial and fungal origin, various types of fermentation of industrial importance, the formation of protein substances from carbohydrates and the simplest nitrogenous compounds, etc.). ). All these questions are considered in the biochemistry of microorganisms.

In the 20th century. arose as a special discipline of the biochemistry of viruses (see. Viruses).

The emergence of clinical biochemistry was caused by the needs of clinical medicine (see).

Of the other sections of biology, which are usually considered as fairly separate disciplines that have their own tasks and specific research methods, one should name: evolutionary and comparative biology (biochemical processes and the chemical composition of organisms at various stages of their evolutionary development), enzymology (structure and the function of enzymes, the kinetics of enzymatic reactions), B. vitamins, hormones, radiation biochemistry, quantum biochemistry — a comparison of the properties, functions, and pathways of transformation of biologically important compounds with their electronic characteristics obtained using quantum chemical calculations (see Quantum Biochemistry).

The study of the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids at the molecular level turned out to be especially promising. This circle of questions is studied by the sciences that have arisen at the junctions of biology and genetics - molecular biology (see) and biochemical genetics (see).

Historical outline of the development of research in the chemistry of living matter. The study of living matter from the chemical side began from the moment when it became necessary to study the constituent parts of living organisms and the chemical processes taking place in them in connection with the demands of practical medicine and agriculture. Studies of medieval alchemists led to the accumulation of a large amount of factual material on natural organic compounds. In the 16th - 17th centuries. the views of alchemists were developed in the works of iatrochemists (see. Iatrochemistry), who believed that the vital activity of the human body can be correctly understood only from the standpoint of chemistry. Thus, one of the most prominent representatives of iatrochemistry, the German physician and naturalist F. Paracelsus, put forward a progressive position on the need for a close connection between chemistry and medicine, emphasizing that the task of alchemy is not in the manufacture of gold and silver, but in the creation of what is strength and virtue. medicine. Iatrochemists introduced honey. practice preparations of mercury, antimony, iron and other elements. Later I. Van Helmont suggested that there are special principles in the "juices" of the living body - the so-called. "Enzymes" involved in a variety of chemical. transformations.

In the 17th -18th centuries. the theory of phlogiston became widespread (see. Chemistry). The refutation of this, fundamentally erroneous, theory is associated with the works of M.V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier, who discovered and approved the law of conservation of matter (mass) in science. Lavoisier made an important contribution to the development of not only chemistry, but also to the study of biol, processes. Developing earlier observations of Mayow (J. Mayow, 1643-1679), he showed that during respiration, as in the combustion of organic substances, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released. At the same time, he, together with Laplace, showed that the process of biological oxidation is also a source of animal heat. This discovery stimulated research on the energetics of metabolism, as a result of which already at the beginning of the 19th century. the amount of heat released during the combustion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins was determined.

Major events of the second half of the 18th century. began the research of R. Reaumur and L. Spallanzani on the physiology of digestion. These researchers were the first to study the effect of gastric juice of animals and birds on various types of food (mainly meat) and laid the foundation for the study of enzymes of digestive juices. The emergence of enzymology (the doctrine of enzymes), however, is usually associated with the names of K. S. Kirchhoff (1814), as well as Payen and J. Persoz (A. Payen, J. Persoz, 1833), who were the first to study the action of the amylase enzyme on starch in vitro.

An important role was played by the works of J. Priestley and especially J. Ingenhouse, who discovered the phenomenon of photosynthesis (late 18th century).

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. other fundamental research in the field of comparative biochemistry was also carried out; at the same time the existence of a cycle of substances in nature was established.

The successes of static chemistry from the very beginning were inextricably linked with the development of organic chemistry.

The impetus for the development of the chemistry of natural compounds was the research of the Swedish chemist K. Scheele (1742 - 1786). He isolated and described the properties of a number of natural compounds - lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic, malic acids, glycerin and amyl alcohol, etc. Of great importance were the studies of I. Berzelius and 10. Liebig, which ended with the development in the early 19th century. methods of quantitative elementary analysis of organic compounds. Following this, attempts began to synthesize natural organic substances. The successes achieved - the synthesis in 1828 of urea by F. Weller, acetic acid by A. Kolbe (1844), fats by P. Berthelot (1850), carbohydrates by A.M. Butlerov (1861) - were of particular importance, since have shown the possibility of in vitro synthesis of a number of organic substances that are part of animal tissues or are end products of metabolism. Thus, the complete inconsistency of the widespread in the 18-19 centuries was established. vitalistic ideas (see. Vitalism). In the second half of the 18th - early 19th century. many other important studies were carried out: urinary acid was isolated from urinary stones (Bergman and Scheele), from bile - cholesterol [J. Conradi], from honey - glucose and fructose (T. Lovitz), from leaves green plants - the pigment chlorophyll [Pelletier and Caventou (J. Pelletier, J. Caventou)], creatine was discovered in the muscles [M. E. Chevreul]. It was shown the existence of a special group of organic compounds - plant alkaloids (Serturner, Meister, etc.), which later found application in honey. practice. The first amino acids, glycine and leucine, were obtained from gelatin and bovine meat by their hydrolysis [J. Proust, 1819; H. Braconnot, 1820].

In France, in the laboratory of C. Bernard, glycogen was discovered in the liver tissue (1857), the ways of its formation and the mechanisms regulating its splitting were studied. In Germany, in the laboratories of E. Fischer, E. F. Hoppe-Seiler, A. Kossel, E. Abdergalden and others, the structure and properties of proteins, as well as the products of their hydrolysis, including enzymatic, were studied.

In connection with the description of yeast cells (K. Cognard-Latour in France and T. Schwann in Germany, 1836-1838), they began to actively study the fermentation process (Liebig, Pasteur, etc.). Contrary to the opinion of Liebig, who considered the fermentation process as a purely chemical process proceeding with the obligatory participation of oxygen, L. Pasteur established the possibility of the existence of anaerobiosis, i.e. life in the absence of air, due to the energy of fermentation (a process inextricably linked, in his opinion, with vital activity cells, e.g. yeast cells). This issue was clarified by the experiments of MM Manasseina (1871), who showed the possibility of sugar fermentation by destroyed yeast cells (by grinding with sand), and especially by the works of Buchner (1897) on the nature of fermentation. Buchner succeeded in obtaining acellular juice from yeast cells, capable, like living yeast, of fermenting sugar to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The emergence and development of biological (physiological) chemistry

The accumulation of a large amount of information on the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them led to the need for systematization and generalizations in the field of biology. The first work in this regard was the textbook by JE Simon "Handbuch der angewandten medizinischen Chemie" (1842 ). Obviously, it was from this time that the term "biological (physiological) chemistry" was established in science.

Somewhat later (1846), Liebig's monograph Die Tierchemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie was published. In Russia, the first textbook of physiological chemistry was published by a professor at Kharkov University A. I. Khodnev in 1847. Periodical literature on biological (physiological) chemistry began to appear regularly since 1873 in Germany. This year L. R. Maly published Jahres-Bericht uber die Fortschritte der Tierchemie. In 1877, E. F. Hoppe-Seiler founded the scientific journal “Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie ", later renamed" Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie ". Later, biochemical journals began to be published in many countries of the world in English, French, Russian and other languages.

In the second half of the 19th century. at the medical faculties of many Russian and foreign universities, special departments of medical, or physiological, chemistry were established. In Russia, the first department of medicinal chemistry was organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky in 1863 at Kazan University. In 1864 AD Bulyginsky founded the Department of Medicinal Chemistry at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. Soon the departments of medicinal chemistry, later renamed the departments of physiological chemistry, appeared at the medical faculties of other universities. In 1892, the Department of Physiological Chemistry, organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky, began to function at the Military Medical (Medico-Surgical) Academy in St. Petersburg. However, the reading of individual sections of the course of physiological chemistry was carried out there much earlier (1862-1874) at the Department of Chemistry (A.P. Borodin).

Burma began to flourish in the 20th century. At the very beginning, the polypeptide theory of the structure of proteins was formulated and experimentally substantiated (E. Fisher, 1901 - 1902, and others). Later, a number of analytical methods were developed, including micromethods, which make it possible to study the amino acid composition of minimal amounts of protein (several milligrams); the method of chromatography (see), first developed by the Russian scientist MS Tsvet (1901 - 1910), methods of X-ray structural analysis (see), "tagged atoms" (isotope indication), cytospectrophotometry, electron microscopy (see) ... Preparative protein chemistry achieves major successes, effective methods of isolation and fractionation of proteins and enzymes and determination of their molecular weight are being developed [S. Cohen, A. Tiselius, T. Swedberg].

The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins (including enzymes) and polypeptides is deciphered. A number of important protein substances with biological activity are synthesized.

The greatest merits in the development of this direction are associated with the names of L. Pauling and R. Corey - the structure of protein polypeptide chains (1951); V. Vigno - structure and synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin (1953); Sanger (F. Sanger) - the structure of insulin (1953); W. Stein and S. Moore - deciphering the ribonuclease formula, creating an automaton for determining the amino acid composition of protein hydrolysates; Perutz (M. F. Perutz), Kendrew (J. Kendrew) and Phillips (D. Phillips) - decoding using methods of X-ray structural analysis and creation of three-dimensional models of molecules of myoglobin, hemoglobin, lysozyme and a number of other proteins (1960 and subsequent years) ...

Of outstanding importance were the works of J. Sumner, who was the first to prove (1926) the protein nature of the urease enzyme; research of J. Northrop and M. Kunitz on purification and obtaining of crystalline preparations of enzymes - pepsin and others (1930); VA Engelhardt on the presence of ATPase activity in the contractile protein of myosin muscles (1939 - 1942), etc. A large number of works are devoted to the study of the mechanism of enzymatic catalysis [Michaelis and Menten (L. Michaelis, M. L. Menten), 1913; R. Willstatter, Theorell, Koshland (N. Theorell, D. E. Koshland), A. E. Braunstein and M. M. Shemyakin, 1963; Straub (F. B. Straub) and others], complex multienzyme complexes (S. E. Severin, F. Linen, etc.), the role of cell structure in the implementation of enzymatic reactions, the nature of active and allosteric centers in enzyme molecules (see. Enzymes), the primary structure of enzymes [V. Shorm, Anfinsen (S. V. Anfinsen), V. N. Orekhovich and others], regulation of the activity of a number of enzymes by hormones (V. S. Ilyin and others). Studied the properties of "families of enzymes" - isoenzymes [Markert, Kaplan, Wroblewski (S. Markert, N. Kaplan, F. Wroblewski), 1960-1961].

An important stage in the development of B. was the deciphering of the mechanism of protein biosynthesis with the participation of ribosomes, the informational and transport forms of ribonucleic acids [J. Brachet, F. Jacob, J. Monod, 1953-1961; A.N.Belozersky (1959); A. S. Spirin, A. A. Baev (1957 and subsequent years)].

The brilliant works of E. Chargaff, J. Davidson, especially J. Watson, F. Crick and M. Wilkins, come to the end with the elucidation of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (see). The double-stranded structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of hereditary information are established. The synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) is carried out by A. Kornberg (1960 - 1968), S. Weiss, S. Ochoa. Solved (1962 and subsequent years) one of the central problems of modern B. - the RNA-amino acid code is deciphered [Crick, M. Nirenberg, Mattei (F. Crick, J. H. Matthaei), and others].

For the first time, one of the genes and the phage fx174 is synthesized. The concept of molecular diseases associated with certain defects in the structure of the DNA of the chromosomal apparatus of a cell is introduced (see. Molecular Genetics). A theory is being developed for the regulation of the work of cistrons (see), which are responsible for the synthesis of various proteins and enzymes (Jacob, Monod), the study of the mechanism of protein (nitrogenous) metabolism continues.

Previously, the classical studies of I.P. Pavlov and his school revealed the basic physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the digestive glands. Particularly fruitful was the collaboration of the laboratories of A. Ya. Danilevsky and MV Nentsky with the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov, a cut led to the clarification of the place of formation of urea (in the liver). F. Hopkins and his sotr. (England) established the significance of previously unknown food components, developing on this basis a new concept of diseases caused by food deficiency. The existence of nonessential and irreplaceable amino acids is established, the norms of protein in the diet are developed. The intermediate exchange of amino acids is deciphered - deamination, transamination (AE Braunstein and MG Kritsman), decarboxylation, their mutual transformations and exchange features (SR Mardashev and others). The mechanisms of the biosynthesis of urea (G. Krebs), creatine and creatinine are elucidated, a group of extractive nitrogenous muscle substances - dipeptides carnosine, carnitine, anserine [V. S. Gulevich, D. Ackermann,

SE Severin and others]. The peculiarities of the process of nitrogen metabolism in plants are subjected to detailed study (D. N. Pryanishnikov, V. L. Kretovich, and others). A special place was taken by the study of violations of nitrogen metabolism in animals and humans with protein deficiency (S. Ya. Kaplansky, Yu. M. Gefter, and others). The synthesis of purine and pyrimidine bases is carried out, the mechanisms of the formation of urinary to-you are clarified, the decay products of hemoglobin (pigments of bile, feces and urine) are studied in detail, the ways of heme formation and the mechanism of occurrence of acute and congenital forms of porphyria and porphyrinuria are deciphered.

Outstanding progress has been achieved in deciphering the structure of the most important carbohydrates [A. A. Colley, Tollens, Killiani, Haworth (B.C. Tollens, H. Killiani, W. Haworth) and others] and mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism. The transformation of carbohydrates in the digestive tract under the influence of digestive enzymes and intestinal microorganisms (in particular, in herbivores) has been elucidated in detail; refined and expanded works on the role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism and maintaining the concentration of sugar in the blood at a certain level, begun in the middle of the last century by K. Bernard and E. Pfluger, decipher the mechanisms of glycogen synthesis (with the participation of UDP-glucose) and its decay [K ... Corey, Lelloir (L. F. Leloir) and others]; schemes of intermediate metabolism of carbohydrates are created (glycolytic, pentose cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle); the nature of individual intermediate metabolic products is clarified [Ya. O. Parnas, G. Embden, O. Meyerhof, L. A. Ivanov, S. P. Kostychev, A. Harden, Krebs, F. Lipmann, S. Cohen, V. A . Engelhardt and others]. The biochemical mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism disorders (diabetes, galactosemia, glycogenosis, etc.) associated with hereditary defects of the corresponding enzyme systems are elucidated.

Outstanding progress has been achieved in decoding the structure of lipids: phospholipids, cerebrosides, gangliosides, sterols and sterols [Tierfelder, A. Windaus, A. Butenandt, Ruzicka, Reichstein (H. Thierfelder, A. Ruzicka, T. Reichstein), etc.].

The theory of β-oxidation of fatty acids was created by the works of M.V. Nentsky, F. Knoop (1904) and H. Dakin. The development of modern ideas about the pathways of oxidation (with the participation of coenzyme A) and synthesis (with the participation of malonyl-CoA) of fatty acids and complex lipids is associated with the names of Lelloire, Linen, Lipmann, Green (D. E. Green), Kennedy (E. Kennedy) and etc.

Significant progress has been made in the study of the mechanism of biological oxidation. One of the first theories of biological oxidation (the so-called peroxide theory) was proposed by A. N. Bach (see. Biological oxidation). Later, a theory appeared, according to a cut, various substrates of cellular respiration undergo oxidation and their carbon ultimately turns into CO2 due to the oxygen of not absorbed air, but the oxygen of water (V.I. Palladii, 1908). Subsequently, a major contribution to the development of the modern theory of tissue respiration was made by the works of G. Wieland, T. Tunberg, L.S. Stern, O. Warburg, Euler, D. Keilin (N. Euler) and others. the discovery of one of the coenzymes of dehydrogenases - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), a flavin enzyme and its prosthetic group, a respiratory iron-containing enzyme, later called cytochrome oxidase. He also proposed a spectrophotometric method for determining the concentration of NAD and NADP (Warburg test), which then formed the basis for quantitative methods for the determination of a number of biochemical components of blood and tissues. Keilin established the role of iron-containing pigments (cytochromes) in the chain of respiratory catalysts.

The discovery of coenzyme A by Lipmann was of great importance, which made it possible to develop a universal cycle of aerobic oxidation of the active form of acetate - acetyl-CoA (Krebs citrate cycle).

VA Engelgardt, as well as Lipmann introduced the concept of "energy-rich" phosphoric compounds, in particular ATP (see. Adenosine phosphoric acids), in the high-energy bonds of which a significant part of the energy released during tissue respiration is accumulated (see. Biological oxidation).

The possibility of phosphorylation, coupled with respiration (see) in the chain of respiratory catalysts mounted in mitochondrial membranes, was shown by V.A. Belitser and H. Kalckar. A large number of works are devoted to the study of the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation [Cheyne (B. Chance), Mitchell (P. Mitchell), V. P. Skulachev, etc.].

20th century It was marked by the deciphering of the chemical structure of all vitamins known in crust, time (see), international units of vitamins are introduced, the needs for vitamins of humans and animals are established, the vitamin industry is created.

No less significant advances have been made in the field of chemistry and biochemistry of hormones (see); studied the structure and synthesized steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex (Windaus, Reichstein, Butenandt, Ruzicka); established the structure of thyroid hormones - thyroxine, diiodothyronine [E. Kendall (E. C. Kendall), 1919; Harington (C. Harington), 1926]; adrenal medulla - adrenaline, norepinephrine [J. Takamine, 1907]. The synthesis of insulin has been carried out, the structure of somatotropic hormones has been established), adrenocorticotropic, melanocyte-stimulating hormones; other hormones of a protein nature have been isolated and studied; schemes of interconversion and exchange of steroid hormones have been developed (N.A.Yudaev and others). The first data on the mechanism of action of hormones (ACTH, vasopressin, etc.) on metabolism were obtained. The mechanism of regulation of the functions of the endocrine glands according to the principle of feedback has been deciphered.

Essential data have been obtained in the study of the chemical composition and metabolism of a number of important organs and tissues (functional biochemistry). The features in the chemical composition of the nervous tissue have been established. A new direction in biology, neurochemistry, is emerging. A number of complex lipids that make up the bulk of brain tissue have been identified - phosphatides, sphingomyelins, plasmalogens, cerebrosides, cholesterides, gangliosides [J. Thudichum, H. Waelsh, AB Palladium, E. M. K reps, etc.] ... The main regularities of the exchange of nerve cells are clarified, the role of biologically active amines - adrenaline, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, γ-amino-oil to-you, etc. is deciphered. Various psychopharmacological substances are introduced into medical practice, opening up new possibilities in the treatment of various nervous diseases. Chemical transmitters of nervous excitement (neurotransmitters) are being studied in detail; they are widely used, especially in agriculture, various cholinesterase inhibitors for controlling insect pests, etc.

Significant advances have been made in the study of muscle activity. The contractile proteins of muscles are investigated in detail (see. Muscle tissue). The most important role of ATP in muscle contraction has been established [V. A. Engelhardt and MN Lyubimova, St. Gyorgyi, Straub (A. Szent-Gyorgyi, F. B. Straub)], in the movement of cellular organelles, penetration of phages into bacteria [Weber, Hoffmann-Berling (N. Weber, H. Hoffmann-Berling), I. I. Ivanov, V. Ya. Aleksandrov, N. I. Arronet, B. F. Poglazov and others]; the mechanism of muscle contraction at the molecular level is investigated in detail [H. Huxley, J. Hanson, GM Frank, J. Tonomura, etc.], the role of imidazole and its derivatives in muscle contraction (G . E. Severin); theories of biphasic muscular activity are being developed [W. Hasselbach], etc.

Important results were obtained in the study of the composition and properties of blood: the respiratory function of blood was studied in normal conditions and in a number of pathological conditions; the mechanism of oxygen transfer from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs has been clarified [I. M. Sechenov, J. Haldane, D. van Slyke, J. Barcroft, L. Henderson, S. E. Severin, G. E. Vladimirov, E. M. Krepe, G. V. Derviz]; clarified and expanded ideas about the mechanism of blood coagulation; the presence of a number of new factors in the blood plasma was established, in the congenital absence of which various forms of hemophilia are observed in the blood. The fractional composition of blood plasma proteins (albumin, alpha, beta and gamma globulins, lipoproteins, etc.) has been studied. A number of new plasma proteins have been discovered (properdin, C-reactive protein, haptoglobin, cryoglobulin, transferrin, ceruloplasmin, interferon, etc.). The system of kinins, biologically active polypeptides of blood plasma (bradykinin, kallidin), which play an important role in the regulation of local and general blood flow and take part in the mechanism of development of inflammatory processes, shock and other pathological processes and conditions, has been discovered.

In the development of modern biology, an important role was played by the development of a number of special research methods: isotope indication, differential centrifugation (separation of subcellular organelles), spectrophotometry (see), mass spectrometry (see), electronic paramagnetic resonance (see), and others.

Some prospects for the development of biochemistry

B.'s successes largely determine not only the modern level of medicine, but also its possible further progress. One of the main problems of B. and molecular biology (see) is the correction of defects in the genetic apparatus (see. Gene therapy). Radical therapy of hereditary diseases associated with mutational changes in certain genes (i.e., DNA regions) responsible for the synthesis of certain proteins and enzymes, in principle, is possible only by transplanting analogous cells synthesized in vitro or isolated from cells (e.g., bacteria). "Healthy" genes. It is also a very tempting task to master the mechanism of regulation of the reading of genetic information encoded in DNA and deciphering at the molecular level the mechanism of cell differentiation in ontogenesis. The problem of therapy for a number of viral diseases, especially leukemia, will probably not be solved until the mechanism of interaction of viruses (in particular, oncogenic ones) with the infected cell becomes completely clear. In this direction, work is being intensively carried out in many laboratories around the world. Clarification of the picture of life at the molecular level will allow not only to fully understand the processes occurring in the body (biocatalysis, the mechanism of using the energy of ATP and GTP during the performance of mechanical functions, the transmission of nervous excitement, active transport of substances through membranes, the phenomenon of immunity, etc.), but also will open up new opportunities in the creation of effective medicines, in the fight against premature aging, the development of cardiovascular diseases (atherosclerosis), and life extension.

Biochemical centers in the USSR. In the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of Biochemistry named after V.I. A. N. Bach, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry named after A.N. IM Sechenov, Institute of Protein, Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, a branch of the Institute of Biochemistry of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Biochemistry of the Arm. SSR, etc. The USSR Academy of Medical Sciences has the Institute of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Chemistry of Hormones, the Institute of Nutrition, and the Department of Biochemistry of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. There are also a number of biochemical laboratories in other institutes and scientific institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, academies of the Union republics, in universities (departments of biochemistry at Moscow, Leningrad and other universities, a number of medical institutes, the Military Medical Academy, etc.), veterinary, agricultural and other scientific institutions. In the USSR, there are about 8 thousand members of the All-Union Biochemical Society (VBO), a cut is part of the European Federation of Biochemists (FEBS) and the International Biochemical Union (IUB).

Radiation biochemistry

Radiation biology studies the changes in metabolism that occur in the body when ionizing radiation acts on it. Irradiation causes ionization and excitation of cell molecules, their reactions with free radicals (see) and peroxides that arise in an aqueous medium, which leads to a violation of the structures of biosubstrates of cell organelles, equilibrium and mutual connections of intracellular biochemical processes. In particular, these shifts in combination with post-radiation effects from the damaged c. n. with. and humoral factors give rise to secondary metabolic disorders that determine the course of radiation sickness. An important role in the development of radiation sickness is played by the acceleration of the breakdown of nucleoproteins, DNA and simple proteins, inhibition of their biosynthesis, disruption of the coordinated action of enzymes, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (see) in mitochondria, a decrease in the amount of ATP in tissues and increased lipid oxidizability with the formation of peroxides (see . Radiation sickness, Radiobiology, Medical radiology).

Bibliography: Afonskiy SI Biochemistry of animals, M., 1970; Biochemistry, ed. H. N. Yakovleva, M., 1969; ZbarekiY BI, Ivanov II and M and r-d and sh e in SR Biological chemistry, JI., 1972; Kretovich V. JI. Fundamentals of plant biochemistry, M., 1971; JI e N and N dzh er A. Biochemistry, the lane with from English., M., 1974; Makeev I.A., Gulevich V.S. and Broude JI. M. Course of Biological Chemistry, JI., 1947; Mahler G.R. and Cordes. G. Foundations of Biological Chemistry, trans. from English., M., 1970; Ferdman D. JI. Biochemistry, M., 1966; Filippovich Yu. B. Fundamentals of biochemistry, M., 1969; III tr and at b FB Biochemistry, lane. from Hungarian., Budapest, 1965; R a p about ro g t S. M. Medizinische Bioc-hemie, B., 1962.

Periodicals- Biochemistry, M., since 1936; Questions of medicinal chemistry, M., since 1955; Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology, M., since 1965; Izvestia of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Series of biological sciences, M., since 1958; Molecular biology, M., since 1967; Ukrainian byuchemic magazine, Kshv, since 1946 (1926-1937 - Naukov1 notes of the Ukrainian byuchemic sheti-tutu, 1938-1941 - Byukhem1chny magazine); Advances in Biological Chemistry, JI., From 1924; Advances in modern biology, M., since 1932; Annual Review of Biochemistry, Stanford, from 1932; Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, N. Y., 1951 (1942-1950 - Archives of Biochemistry); Biochemical Journal, L., 1906; Biochemische Zeitsch-rift, B., from 1906; Biochemistry, Washington, 1964; Biochimica et biophysica acta, N. Y. - Amsterdam, from 1947; Bulletin de la Soci6t<5 de chimie biologique, P., с 1914; Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, L., с 1960; Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, В., с 1877; Journal of Biochemistry, Tokyo, с 1922; Journal of Biological Chemistry, Baltimore, с 1905; Journal of Molecular Biology, L.-N.Y., с 1960; Journal of Neurochemistry, L., с 1956; Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, N. Y., с 1903; См. также в ст. Клиническая биохимия, Физиология, Химия.

B. radiation- Kuzin A.M. Radiation Biochemistry, M., 1962; P about -mantsev E.F. and dr. Early radiation-biochemical reactions, M., 1966; Fedorova TA, Tereshchenko O. Ya. And M and z at r and to VK Nucleic acids and proteins in the body with radiation injury, M., 1972; Cherkasova L.S. and dr. Ionizing radiation and metabolism, Minsk, 1962, bibliogr .; Altman K. I., Gerber G. B. a. About k a d a S. Radiation biochemistry, v. 1-2, N. Y.-L., 1970.

I. I. Ivanov; T.A. Fedorova (glad.).

A biochemical blood test is one of the most popular research methods for patients and doctors. If you clearly know what the biochemical analysis from the vein shows, you can identify a number of serious ailments in the early stages, among which - viral hepatitis ,. Early detection of such pathologies makes it possible to apply the correct treatment and heal them.

The nurse collects blood for research within a few minutes. Each patient should understand that this procedure does not cause discomfort. The answer to the question of where the blood is taken for analysis is unequivocal: from a vein.

Speaking about what a biochemical blood test is and what is included in it, it should be borne in mind that the results obtained are actually a kind of reflection of the general state of the body. Nevertheless, trying to independently understand whether the analysis is normal or there are certain deviations from the normal value, it is important to understand what LDL is, what is CPK (CPK - creatine phosphokinase), to understand what is urea (urea), etc.

General information about the analysis of blood biochemistry - what it is and what you can find out by doing it, you will get from this article. How much it costs to carry out such an analysis, how many days it takes to get the results, should be found out directly in the laboratory where the patient intends to conduct this study.

How is the preparation for biochemical analysis carried out?

Before donating blood, you need to carefully prepare for this process. For those who are interested in how to pass the analysis correctly, you need to take into account several fairly simple requirements:

• donate blood only on an empty stomach;
• in the evening, on the eve of the upcoming analysis, you cannot drink strong coffee, tea, consume fatty foods, alcoholic beverages (it is better not to drink the latter for 2-3 days);
• do not smoke for at least an hour before the analysis;
• the day before the tests, you should not practice any thermal procedures - go to the sauna, bath, and a person should not subject himself to serious physical exertion;
• you need to pass laboratory tests in the morning, before carrying out any medical procedures;
• a person who is preparing for analyzes, having come to the laboratory, should calm down a little, sit for a few minutes and catch his breath;
• the answer to the question of whether it is possible to brush your teeth before taking tests is negative: in order to accurately determine blood sugar, in the morning before conducting the study, you need to ignore this hygienic procedure, and also not drink tea and coffee;
• should not be taken before taking blood, hormonal drugs, diuretics, etc.;
• two weeks before the study, you need to stop taking drugs that affect lipids in the blood, in particular statins ;
• if you need to submit a full analysis again, it must be done at the same time, the laboratory must also be the same.

If a clinical blood test was performed, the deciphering of the indicators is carried out by a specialist. Also, the interpretation of the indicators of a biochemical blood test can be carried out using a special table, which indicates the normal indicators of analyzes in adults and in children. If any indicator differs from the norm, it is important to pay attention to this and consult a doctor who can correctly "read" all the results obtained and give his recommendations. If necessary, blood biochemistry is prescribed: an extended profile.

Decoding table for biochemical blood test in adults

Thus, a biochemical blood test makes it possible to conduct a detailed analysis to assess the work of internal organs. Also, the interpretation of the results allows you to adequately "read" which ones, macro- and microelements, needed by the body. Blood biochemistry allows you to recognize the presence of pathologies.

If the obtained indicators are correctly deciphered, it is much easier to make any diagnosis. Biochemistry is a more detailed study than KLA. After all, the decoding of indicators of a general blood test does not allow obtaining such detailed data.

It is very important to carry out such studies when. After all, a general analysis during pregnancy does not provide an opportunity to obtain complete information. Therefore, biochemistry in pregnant women is usually prescribed in the first months and in the third trimester. In the presence of certain pathologies and poor health, this analysis is performed more often.

In modern laboratories, they are able to conduct research and decipher the obtained indicators for several hours. The patient is provided with a table in which all the data are indicated. Accordingly, it is even possible to independently track how much blood counts are normal in adults and children.

Both the table for decoding the general blood test in adults, and biochemical analyzes are decrypted taking into account the age and gender of the patient. After all, the rate of blood biochemistry, like the rate of a clinical blood test, can vary in women and men, in young and elderly patients.

Hemogram Is a clinical blood test in adults and children, which allows you to find out the amount of all blood elements, as well as their morphological characteristics, ratio, content, etc.

Since blood biochemistry is a complex study, it also includes liver function tests. Deciphering the analysis allows you to determine if the liver function is normal. Hepatic parameters are important for the diagnosis of pathologies of this organ. The following data make it possible to assess the structural and functional state of the liver: ALT, GGTP (GGTP is the norm in women slightly lower), alkaline phosphatase, level and total protein. Liver tests are performed when necessary to establish or confirm the diagnosis.

Cholinesterase is determined in order to diagnose the severity and condition of the liver, as well as its functions.

Blood sugar is determined in order to assess the functions of the endocrine system. What is the name of a blood sugar test, you can find out directly in the laboratory. The sugar designation can be found on the results sheet. How is sugar indicated? It is denoted by the term "glucose" or "GLU" in English.

The norm is important CRP , since a jump in these indicators indicates the development of inflammation. Index AST indicates pathological processes associated with tissue destruction.

Index MID in a blood test is determined during a general analysis. The MID level allows you to determine the development, infectious diseases, anemia, etc. The MID indicator allows you to assess the state of the human immune system.

ICSU Is an indicator of the average concentration in. If the ICSU is increased, the reasons for this are associated with a lack or folic acid , as well as congenital spherocytosis.

MPV - the average value of the measured volume.

Lipidogram provides for the determination of indicators of total, HDL, LDL, triglycerides. The lipid spectrum is determined in order to identify violations of lipid metabolism in the body.

Norm blood electrolytes indicates the normal course of metabolic processes in the body.

Seromucoid Is a fraction of proteins that includes a group of glycoproteins. Speaking about what seromucoid is, it should be borne in mind that if connective tissue is destroyed, degraded or damaged, seromucoids enter the blood plasma. Therefore, seromucoids are determined for the purpose of predicting development.

LDH, LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) - it is involved in the oxidation of glucose and the production of lactic acid.

Research on osteocalcin carried out for diagnosis.

Analysis on ferritin (protein complex, the main intracellular iron depot) is carried out with suspicion of hemochromatosis, chronic inflammatory and infectious diseases, tumors.

Blood test for ASO important for diagnosing a variety of complications after a streptococcal infection.

In addition, other indicators are determined, as well as other follow-ups (protein electrophoresis, etc.) are carried out. The rate of a biochemical blood test is displayed in special tables. It displays the rate of biochemical blood analysis in women, the table also gives information about normal indicators in men. But nevertheless, it is better to ask a specialist who will adequately assess the results in the complex and prescribe the appropriate treatment about how to decipher the general blood test and how to read the data of the biochemical analysis.

Deciphering the biochemistry of blood in children is carried out by a specialist who ordered the study. For this, a table is also used, which indicates the norm in children of all indicators.

In veterinary medicine, there are also norms for the biochemical parameters of blood for a dog, a cat - the biochemical composition of the blood of animals is indicated in the corresponding tables.

What do some indicators mean in a blood test is discussed in more detail below.

Protein means a lot in the human body, as it takes part in the creation of new cells, in the transport of substances and the formation of the humoral.

The composition of proteins includes 20 basic ones, they also contain inorganic substances, vitamins, lipid and carbohydrate residues.

The liquid part of the blood contains about 165 proteins, and their structure and role in the body are different. Proteins are divided into three different protein fractions:

• globulins (α1, α2, β, γ);
• fibrinogen .

Since the production of proteins occurs mainly in the liver, their level is indicative of its synthetic function.

If the proteinogram carried out indicates that there is a decrease in total protein in the body, this phenomenon is defined as hypoproteinemia. A similar phenomenon is noted in the following cases:

• with protein starvation - if a person observes a certain one, practices vegetarianism;
• if there is an increased excretion of protein in the urine - with, kidney disease,;
• if a person loses a lot of blood - with bleeding, heavy periods;
• in case of severe burns;
• with exudative pleurisy, exudative, ascites;
• with the development of malignant neoplasms;
• if protein formation is impaired - with hepatitis;
• with a decrease in the absorption of substances - with , colitis, enteritis, etc.;
• after prolonged use of glucocorticosteroids.

An increased level of protein in the body is hyperproteinemia ... Distinguishes between absolute and relative hyperproteinemia.

The relative growth of proteins develops in the case of loss of the liquid part of the plasma. This happens if you are worried about constant vomiting, with cholera.

An absolute increase in protein is noted if there are inflammatory processes, multiple myeloma.

The concentration of this substance changes by 10% with changes in body position, as well as during physical exertion.

Why do the concentrations of protein fractions change?

Protein fractions - globulins, albumin, fibrinogen.

A standard blood bioassay does not involve the determination of fibrinogen, which reflects the process of blood clotting. - analysis in which this indicator is determined.

When is the level of protein fractions elevated?

Albumin level:

• if fluid loss occurs during infectious diseases;
• with burns.

Α-globulins:

• with systemic diseases of the connective tissue ( , );
• with purulent inflammation in an acute form;
• with burns during the recovery period;
• in patients with glomerulonephritis.

Β- globulins:

• with hyperlipoproteinemia in people with diabetes mellitus;
• with a bleeding ulcer in the stomach or intestines;
• with nephrotic syndrome;
• at .

Gamma globulins are elevated in the blood:

• with viral and bacterial infections;
• with systemic diseases of the connective tissue (rheumatoid arthritis, dermatomyositis, scleroderma);
• with allergies;
• with burns;
• with helminthic invasion.

When is the level of protein fractions lowered?

• in newborns due to underdevelopment of liver cells;
• with lungs;
• during pregnancy;
• with liver diseases;
• with bleeding;
• in case of accumulation of plasma in the body cavities;
• with malignant tumors.

The body is not only building cells. They also disintegrate, and nitrogenous bases accumulate in the process. Their formation occurs in the human liver, they are excreted through the kidneys. Therefore, if the indicators nitrogen exchange elevated, it is likely a dysfunction of the liver or kidneys, as well as excessive breakdown of proteins. The main indicators of nitrogen metabolism - creatinine , urea ... Less commonly, ammonia, creatine, residual nitrogen, uric acid are determined.

Urea (urea)

• glomerulonephritis, acute and chronic;
• poisoning with various substances - dichloroethane, ethylene glycol, mercury salts;
• arterial hypertension;
• crash syndrome;
• polycystic or kidney;

Reasons for downgrading:

• increased urine output;
• the introduction of glucose;
• liver failure;
• decrease in metabolic processes;
• starvation;
• hypothyroidism.

Creatinine

The reasons for the increase:

• renal failure in acute and chronic forms;
• decompensated;
• acromegaly;
• muscle dystrophy;
• burns.

Uric acid

The reasons for the increase:

• leukemia;
• deficiency of vitamin B-12;
• acute infectious diseases;
• Vakez disease;
• liver disease;
• severe diabetes mellitus;
• pathology of the skin;
• carbon monoxide poisoning, barbiturates.

Glucose

Glucose is considered the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. It is the main energy product that enters the cell, since the vital activity of the cell depends on oxygen and glucose. After a person has taken food, glucose enters the liver, and there it is utilized in the form glycogen ... Control these processes of the pancreas - and glucagon ... Due to a lack of glucose in the blood, hypoglycemia develops, its excess indicates that there is hyperglycemia.

Violation of the concentration of glucose in the blood occurs in the following cases:

Hypoglycemia

• with prolonged fasting;
• in case of impaired absorption of carbohydrates - with enteritis, etc.;
• with hypothyroidism;
• with chronic liver pathologies;
• with insufficiency of the adrenal cortex in a chronic form;
• with hypopituitarism;
• in case of an overdose of insulin or hypoglycemic drugs that are taken orally;
• with, insuloma, meningoencephalitis, .

Hyperglycemia

• with diabetes mellitus of the first and second types;
• with thyrotoxicosis;
• in case of tumor development;
• with the development of neoplasms of the adrenal cortex;
• with pheochromocytoma;
• in people who practice glucocorticoid treatment;
• at ;
• with injuries and brain tumors;
• with psycho-emotional arousal;
• if carbon monoxide poisoning occurs.

Specific colored proteins are peptides containing metal (copper, iron). These are myoglobin, hemoglobin, cytochrome, cerulloplasmin, etc. Bilirubin Is the end product of the breakdown of such proteins. When the existence of an erythrocyte in the spleen ends, biliverdin reductase produces bilirubin, which is called indirect or free. This bilirubin is toxic, so it is harmful to the body. However, since there is a rapid connection with blood albumin, poisoning of the body does not occur.

At the same time, in people who suffer from cirrhosis, hepatitis, there is no connection with glucuronic acid in the body, therefore the analysis shows a high level of bilirubin. Further, indirect bilirubin binds to glucuronic acid in liver cells, and it turns into bound or direct bilirubin (DBil), which is not toxic. Its high level is noted when Gilbert's syndrome , biliary dyskinesia ... If liver function tests are performed, their transcript may show high levels of direct bilirubin if liver cells are damaged.

Rheumatic tests

Rheumatic tests - a comprehensive immunochemical blood test, which includes a study to determine the rheumatoid factor, an analysis of circulating immune complexes, the determination of antibodies to o-streptolysin. Rheumatic tests can be carried out independently, as well as as part of studies that involve immunochemistry. Rheumatic tests should be performed if there are complaints of joint pain.

conclusions

Thus, a general therapeutic detailed biochemical blood test is a very important study in the diagnostic process. For those who want to conduct a full extended HD blood test or CBC in a polyclinic or laboratory, it is important to take into account that each laboratory uses a certain set of reagents, analyzers and other devices. Consequently, the norms of indicators may differ, which must be taken into account when studying what a clinical blood test or the results of biochemistry shows. Before reading the results, it is important to make sure that standards are indicated on the form issued by the medical facility in order to decipher the test results correctly. The CBC rate in children is also indicated in the forms, but the doctor must evaluate the results obtained.

Many are interested in: blood test form 50 - what is it and why take it? This is an analysis to determine the antibodies that are in the body if it is infected. The f50 analysis is done both in case of suspicion of HIV, and for the purpose of prophylaxis in a healthy person. It is also worth preparing for such a study.

In this article, we will answer the question of what is biochemistry. Here we will consider the definition of this science, its history and research methods, pay attention to some processes and define its sections.

Introduction

To answer the question of what biochemistry is, suffice it to say that it is a science devoted to the chemical composition and processes taking place inside a living cell of an organism. However, it has many components, having learned which, you can more concretize an idea of ​​it.

In some temporal episodes of the 19th century, the terminological unit "biochemistry" was first used. However, it was introduced into scientific circles only in 1903 by a chemist from Germany - Karl Neuberg. This science occupies an intermediate position between biology and chemistry.

Historical facts

Mankind was able to answer the question clearly what biochemistry is only about a hundred years ago. Despite the fact that society used biochemical processes and reactions in ancient times, it did not suspect that they had their true essence.

Some of the most distant examples are bread making, winemaking, cheese making, etc. A number of questions about the healing properties of plants, health problems, etc. forced a person to delve into their basis and nature of activity.

The development of a common set of directions that ultimately led to the creation of biochemistry has been observed already in ancient times. A physician-scientist from Persia in the tenth century wrote a book about the canons of medical science, where he was able to set out in detail the description of various medicinal substances. In the 17th century, van Helmont proposed the term "enzyme" as a reagent unit of a chemical nature involved in digestive processes.

In the 18th century, thanks to the works of A.L. Lavoisier and M.V. Lomonosov, the law of conservation of mass of matter was derived. At the end of the same century, the value of oxygen in the breathing process was determined.

In 1827, science made it possible to create the division of molecules of biological nature into compounds of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. These terms are still used today. A year later, in the work of F. Veler, it was proved that the substances of living systems can be synthesized by artificial methods. Another important event was the preparation and compilation of the theory of the structure of organic compounds.

The foundations of biochemistry took many hundreds of years to form, but they took a clear definition in 1903. This science became the first discipline from the category of biological, which had its own system of mathematical analysis.

25 years later, in 1928, F. Griffith conducted an experiment aimed at studying the mechanism of transformation. The scientist infected mice with pneumococci. He killed the bacteria of one strain and added them to the bacteria of another. The study found that the process of purifying disease-causing agents resulted in the formation of nucleic acid, not protein. The list of discoveries is being replenished at the present time.

Availability of related disciplines

Biochemistry is a separate science, but its creation was preceded by an active process of development of the organic section of chemistry. The main difference lies in the objects of study. In biochemistry, only those substances or processes are considered that can occur in the conditions of living organisms, and not outside them.

Ultimately biochemistry incorporated the concept of molecular biology. They differ from each other mainly in the methods of action and the subjects that they study. Currently, the terminological units "biochemistry" and "molecular biology" have come to be used as synonyms.

The presence of sections

Today biochemistry includes a number of research areas, including:

The section of static biochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of living things, structures and molecular diversity, functions, etc.

There are a number of sections that study biological polymers of protein, lipid, carbohydrate, amino acid molecules, as well as nucleic acids and the nucleotide itself.

Biochemistry, which studies vitamins, their role and form of impact on the body, possible disruptions in vital processes in the event of a shortage or excessive amount.

Hormonal biochemistry is the science that studies hormones, their biological effect, the reasons for the lack or excess.

The science of metabolism and its mechanisms is a dynamic section of biochemistry (includes bioenergy).

Molecular biology research.

The functional component of biochemistry studies the phenomenon of chemical transformations responsible for the functionality of all components of the body, from tissues to the whole body.

Medical biochemistry - a section on the patterns of metabolism between the structures of the body under the influence of diseases.

There are also branches of the biochemistry of microorganisms, humans, animals, plants, blood, tissues, etc.

Research and problem solving tools

Biochemistry methods are based on fractionation, analysis, detailed study and consideration of the structure of both a separate component and the whole organism or its substance. Most of them were formed during the XX century, and the most widely known is chromatography - the process of centrifugation and electrophoresis.



At the end of the 20th century, biochemical methods began to find their application more and more often in the molecular and cellular sections of biology. The structure of the entire genome of human DNA was determined. This discovery made it possible to learn about the existence of a huge number of substances, in particular various proteins, which were not detected during the purification of biomass, due to their extremely low content in the substance.

Genomics challenged a vast body of biochemical knowledge and led to the development of changes in its methodology. The concept of computer virtual simulation has appeared.

Chemical constituent

Physiology and biochemistry are closely related. This is explained by the dependence of the rate of the course of all physiological processes with the content of various series of chemical elements.



In nature, you can find 90 components of the periodic table of chemical elements, but about a quarter is needed for life. Our body does not need many rare components at all.

The different position of a taxon in the hierarchical table of living things determines a different need for the presence of certain elements.

99% of the human mass consists of six elements (C, H, N, O, F, Ca). In addition to the bulk of these types of atoms that form substances, we need 19 more elements, but in small or microscopic volumes. Among them are: Zn, Ni, Ma, K, Cl, Na and others.

Protein biomolecule

The main molecules studied in biochemistry are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and the attention of this science is focused on their hybrids.

Proteins are large compounds. They are formed by linking chains of monomers - amino acids. Most living things get proteins by synthesizing twenty types of these compounds.

These monomers differ in the structure of the radical group, which plays a huge role in protein folding. The purpose of this process is to form a three-dimensional structure. Amino acids are linked together by the formation of peptide bonds.

Answering the question of what biochemistry is, one cannot fail to mention such complex and multifunctional biological macromolecules as proteins. They have more tasks than polysaccharides or nucleic acids to accomplish.

Some proteins are represented by enzymes and are involved in the catalysis of various reactions of a biochemical nature, which is very important for metabolism. Other protein molecules can play the role of signaling mechanisms, form cytoskeletons, participate in immune defense, etc.

Some types of proteins are capable of forming non-protein biomolecular complexes. Substances created by the fusion of proteins with oligosaccharides allow molecules such as glycoproteins to exist, and interaction with lipids leads to the appearance of lipoproteins.

Nucleic acid molecule

Nucleic acids are represented by complexes of macromolecules consisting of a set of polynucleotide chains. Their main functional purpose is to encode hereditary information. The synthesis of nucleic acid occurs due to the presence of mononucleoside triphosphate macroenergetic molecules (ATP, TTF, UTP, GTP, CTP).

The most widespread representatives of such acids are DNA and RNA. These building blocks are found in every living cell, from archaea to eukaryotes, and even viruses.

Lipid molecule

Lipids are molecular substances composed of glycerol, to which fatty acids (1 to 3) are attached through ester bonds. Such substances are divided into groups according to the length of the hydrocarbon chain, and also pay attention to saturation. The biochemistry of water does not allow it to dissolve lipid (fat) compounds in itself. As a rule, such substances dissolve in polar solutions.



The main tasks of lipids are to provide energy to the body. Some are part of hormones, can perform a signaling function or carry lipophilic molecules.

Carbohydrate molecule

Carbohydrates are biopolymers formed by combining monomers, which in this case are monosaccharides such as, for example, glucose or fructose. The study of plant biochemistry allowed humans to determine that the bulk of carbohydrates are contained in them.

These biopolymers find their application in the structural function and the provision of energy resources to the body or cell. In plant organisms, starch is the main storage substance, and in animals, glycogen.

The flow of the Krebs cycle

There is a Krebs cycle in biochemistry - a phenomenon during which the overwhelming majority of eukaryotic organisms receive most of the energy spent on the oxidation of absorbed food.

It can be observed inside cellular mitochondria. It is formed through several reactions, during which reserves of "hidden" energy are released.

In biochemistry, the Krebs cycle is an important fragment of the general respiratory process and material metabolism within cells. The cycle was discovered and studied by H. Krebs. For this, the scientist received the Nobel Prize.

This process is also called an electron transport system. This is due to the concomitant transition of ATP to ADP. The first compound, in turn, is involved in providing metabolic reactions by releasing energy.

Biochemistry and Medicine

The biochemistry of medicine is presented to us in the form of a science, covering many areas of biological and chemical processes. Currently, there is a whole industry in education that prepares specialists for these studies.

All living things are studied here: from bacteria or viruses to the human body. Having a biochemist specialty gives the subject the opportunity to follow the diagnosis and analyze the treatment applicable to the individual unit, draw conclusions, etc.



To prepare a highly qualified expert in this field, you need to train him in the natural sciences, medical fundamentals and biotechnology disciplines, conduct many tests in biochemistry. Also, the student is given the opportunity to practically apply their knowledge.

Biochemistry universities are currently gaining more and more popularity, which is due to the rapid development of this science, its importance for humans, demand, etc.

Among the most famous educational institutions that train specialists in this branch of science, the most popular and significant are: Moscow State University. Lomonosov, PGPU them. Belinsky, Moscow State University Ogareva, Kazan and Krasnoyarsk state universities and others.

The list of documents required for admission to such universities does not differ from the list for admission to other higher educational institutions. Biology and Chemistry are the main subjects that must be taken upon admission.