History

The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on the forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.

• Royal period (/ - / 509 BC).
• Republic (510 / - / 27 BC)
  • Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
  • Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
    • Sometimes the period of the Middle (classical) Republic (287-133 BC) is also distinguished.
• Empire (30/27 BC - AD)
  • Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - AD)
  • Late Roman Empire. Dominat (- years)

Ancient Rome map

During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium - the area of ​​residence of the Latin tribe. During the period of the Early Republic, Rome significantly expanded its territory during numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although the vertical system of control over the subordinate territories had not yet taken shape at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon led him to conflict with Carthage, a large state founded by the Phoenicians. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began expansion to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor and Syria. In the 1st century BC. NS. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, as a result of which the ultimate victor, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julian-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not hold out in power for a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire fell on a relatively calm time of the II century, but already the III century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy position of the empire was complicated. The establishment of a dominant system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for a while by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the IV century, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of an active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which finally undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus-Augustulus, by the German leader Odoacer on September 4 is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire.

Magistrates could submit a bill (rogatio) to the Senate, where it was discussed. Initially, the Senate had 100 members, during most of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of senators, later their number varied. A place in the Senate was obtained after passing ordinary magistrates, but the censors had the right to lustration the Senate with the possibility of expelling individual senators. The Senate met in calendars, nons, and idam every month, and also on any day in the event of an emergency convocation of the senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convocation of the Senate and the comitia in the event that the appointed day was declared unfavorable for one or another "sign".

Dictators who were elected on special occasions and for no more than 6 months had extraordinary powers and, unlike ordinary magistrates, were not accountable. With the exception of the extraordinary magistracy of the dictator, all positions in Rome were collegiate.

Society

The laws

As for the Romans, for them the task of war was not just victory over the enemy or the establishment of peace; the war only ended to their satisfaction when the former enemies became “friends” or allies (socii) of Rome. The goal of Rome was not to subjugate the whole world to the power and imperium of Rome, but to spread the Roman system of alliances to all countries of the earth. The Roman idea was expressed by Virgil, and it was not just a poet's fantasy. The Roman people themselves, populus Romanus, owed their existence to such a war-born partnership, namely, an alliance between patricians and plebeians, the end of the internal strife between whom was put by the famous Leges XII Tabularum. But even this document of their history, sanctified by antiquity, was not considered by the Romans to be divinely inspired; they preferred to believe that Rome had sent a commission to Greece to study the systems of legislation there. Thus, the Roman Republic, itself based on law - an indefinite alliance between patricians and plebeians - used the leges instrument mainly for treaties and administration of the provinces and communities that belonged to the Roman system of alliances, in other words, to the ever-expanding group of Roman socii that formed societas Romana.

Social structure of Roman society

Over time, the social structure as a whole has become noticeably more complex. Horsemen appeared - people not always of noble birth, but engaged in commercial operations (trade was considered an unworthy occupation by the patricians) and concentrated significant wealth in their hands. Among the patricians, the most noble families stood out, and some of the families gradually faded away. Around the 3rd century. BC NS. the patriciate merges with the horsemen into the nobility.

Until the late Republic, there was a type of marriage cum manu, "at hand", that is, a daughter, getting married, fell into the power of the head of the husband's family. Later, this form of marriage fell out of use and marriages began to be contracted sine manu, without a hand, under which the wife was not under the control of her husband and remained under the control of her father or guardian. Ancient Roman marriage, especially in the upper classes, often consisted of financial and political interests.

Several families with kinship ties formed the gens, the most influential of which played an important role in political life.

Fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by prevailing moral norms and personal considerations. The father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a young man from the age of 14.

Roman law provided for two forms of marriage:

When a woman passed from the authority of her father to the authority of her husband, that is, she was accepted into the family of her husband.

After marriage, the woman remained a member of the old surname, while claiming the inheritance of the family. This case was not the main one and was more like cohabitation than marriage, since the wife could leave her husband and return home at almost any moment.

Regardless of which form young people preferred, marriage was preceded by betrothal between the young. During the betrothal, the young took a marriage vow. Each of them, when asked if he promised to marry, answered: "I promise." The groom handed the future wife a coin, as a symbol of the marriage concluded between the parents, and an iron ring, which the bride wore on the ring finger of her left hand.

At weddings, all matters related to the organization of the wedding celebration were transferred to the steward - a woman who enjoyed general respect. The steward took the bride out into the hall and handed her over to the groom. The transmission was accompanied by religious rituals in which the woman played the role of the priestess of the hearth. After the feast in the parents' house, the newlywed was seen off to her husband's house. The bride had to theatrically resist and cry. And the steward stopped the girl's stubbornness, taking her from the arms of her mother and handing her over to her husband.

Celebrations associated with the arrival of a new family member began on the eighth day after childbirth and lasted for three days. The father raised the child from the ground and gave a name to the baby, thereby announcing his decision to accept him into the family. After that, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, as a rule, amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits.

For a long time it was not necessary to register a child. Only when the Roman came of age and put on a white toga, he became a citizen of the Roman state. He was introduced to officials and included in the list of citizens.

For the first time, the registration of newborns was introduced at the dawn of a new era by Octavian Augustus, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days from the date of birth. Registration of children was carried out in the Temple of Saturn, where the governor's office and archive were located. At the same time, the child's name and date of birth were confirmed. His free origin and the right of citizenship were confirmed.

Situation of women

The woman was subordinate to the man because, according to Theodor Mommsen, she "belonged only to the family and did not exist for the community." In wealthy families, a woman was given an honorable position, she was engaged in the management of the economy. Unlike Greek women, Roman women could freely appear in society, and, despite the fact that the father had the highest power in the family, they were protected from his arbitrariness. The main principle of building Roman society is to rely on the elementary cell of society - the family (surname).

The head of the family, the father (pater familias), ruled infinitely in the family, and his power in the family was formalized by law. The family included not only a father and mother, but also sons, their wives and children, as well as unmarried daughters.

The surname included both slaves and all household property.

The power of the father extended to all members of the family.

Almost all decisions regarding family members were made by the father himself.

At the birth of a child, he determined the fate of the newborn; he either recognized the child, or ordered it to be killed, or abandoned it without any help.

The father solely owned all the family's property. Even after reaching adulthood and getting married, the son remained powerless in his surname. He had no right to own any real estate during his father's life. Only after the death of his father, by virtue of his will, did he receive his property by inheritance. The infinite domination of the father existed throughout the Roman Empire, as well as the right to dispose of the fate of loved ones. In the late period of the Roman Empire, fathers were freed from unwanted children due to economic difficulties and a general decline in the moral foundations of society.

In Roman families, a woman had great rights, since she was entrusted with the duties of housekeeping. She was the sovereign mistress of her house. It was considered good form when a woman was good at establishing family life, freeing up her husband's time for more important state affairs. The dependence of a woman on her husband was essentially limited to property relations; a woman could not own and dispose of property without the permission of her husband.

A Roman woman freely appeared in society, went to visit, attended solemn receptions. But politics was not a woman's business, she was not supposed to be present at the meetings of the people.

Education

Boys and girls began to be taught at the age of seven. Wealthy parents preferred homeschooling. The poor used the services of the schools. At the same time, the prototype of modern education was born: children went through three stages of education: primary, secondary and higher. The heads of the family, taking care of the education of their children, tried to hire Greek teachers for their children or to get a Greek slave for training.

The vanity of the parents forced them to send their children to Greece for higher education.

At the first stages of education, children were mainly taught to write and count, they were given information on history, law and literary works.

At the Higher School, teaching took place in the art of public speaking. During the practical lessons, the students performed exercises that consisted of making speeches on a given topic from history, mythology, literature, or from public life.

Outside Italy, they received education mainly in Athens, on the island of Rhodes, where they also improved their oratory, got an idea of ​​various philosophical schools. Education in Greece became especially relevant after Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Licinius Crassus, being censors in 92 BC. NS. , closed Latin rhetorical schools.

At the age of 17-18, the young man had to leave the doctrine and undergo military service.

The Romans also cared about the fact that women were educated in connection with the role they had in the family: organizer of family life and educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl. In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers of estates and were engaged in trade, were put overseers over other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucratic apparatus of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects.

A literate slave was worth more than an illiterate one because he could be used for skilled work. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus.

Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to form a significant stratum in Rome. With nothing behind their souls except the thirst for power and profit, they strove to take the place of an employee, a manager in the state apparatus, engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to appear, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves slighted and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. Ultimately, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans away from government.

Army

The Roman army for almost the entire period of its existence was, as practice proved, the most advanced among the rest of the states of the Ancient World, having gone from the people's militia to professional regular infantry and cavalry with many auxiliary units and allied formations. At the same time, the main fighting force has always been the infantry (in the era of the Punic Wars, in fact, the marines that showed themselves perfectly appeared). The main advantages of the Roman army were mobility, flexibility and tactical training, which allowed it to operate in conditions of various terrain and in harsh weather conditions.

With a strategic threat to Rome or Italy, or a sufficiently serious military threat ( tumultus) all work was stopped, production was stopped and everyone who could simply carry weapons was recruited into the army - the inhabitants of this category were called tumultuarii (subitarii), and the army - tumultuarius (subitarius) exercitus... Since the usual recruitment procedure took longer, the commander-in-chief of this army, the magistrate took out special banners from the Capitol: red, indicating recruitment for the infantry, and green for the cavalry, after which he traditionally announced: “Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me sequatur” (“Who wants save the republic, let him follow me "). The military oath was also pronounced not individually, but together.

The culture

Politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred) and historiography were recognized as deeds worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. On this basis, the early culture of Rome took shape. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, penetrating through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were perceived only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman system of values ​​or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Roman culture during its heyday had a huge impact on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe.

The early Roman worldview was characterized by the feeling of being a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civic community and the priority of state interests over personal ones, combined with conservatism, which consisted in following the mores and customs of their ancestors. In - centuries. BC NS. there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the personality began to be opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were rethought.

Language

Latin language, the appearance of which is attributed to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. NS. was the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the process of the historical development of ancient Italy, Latin supplanted other Italic languages ​​and eventually took a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. Latin was spoken by the population of the small region of Latius (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower course of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latius was called the Latins (lat. Latini), his language is Latin. The center of this area was the city of Rome, after which the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves the Romans (lat. Romans).

There are several stages in the development of Latin:

• Archaic Latin
• Classical Latin
• Postclassic Latin
• Late latin

Religion

Ancient Roman mythology in many aspects is close to Greek, up to the direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions associated with the worship of spirits also played an important role: geniuses, Penates, Lares, lemurs and mans. Also in ancient Rome, there were numerous colleges of priests.

Although religion played a significant role in traditional ancient Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. NS. a significant part of the Roman elite was already indifferent to religion. In the 1st century BC. NS. Roman philosophers (most notably Titus Lucretius Carus and Mark Tullius Cicero) largely revise or question many of the traditional religious positions.

Art, music, literature

Everyday life

The social evolution of Roman society was first studied by the German scientist G.B. Niebuhr. Ancient Roman life and life were based on developed family legislation and religious rituals.

To make better use of the daylight, the Romans usually got up very early, often around four in the morning, and after breakfast, they began to engage in public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.

In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mainly thick, steeply cooked porridge made from spelled, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. The culinary arts began to develop in the 3rd century. BC NS. and reached unprecedented heights under the empire.

The science

Main article: Ancient roman science

Roman science inherited a number of Greek studies, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics) it was mainly of an applied nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numbering and the Julian calendar that received worldwide distribution. At the same time, its characteristic feature was the presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form. Jurisprudence and agricultural sciences reached a special flourishing, a large number of works were devoted to architecture and urban planning and military technology. The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedic scientists Guy Pliny Secundus the Elder, Mark Terentius Varro and Lucius Annei Seneca.

Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the wake of the Greek, with which it was largely associated. Stoicism is the most widespread in philosophy.

Roman science has achieved remarkable success in the field of medicine. Among the outstanding physicians of Ancient Rome, one can note: Dioscorides, a pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany, Soranus of Ephesus, an obstetrician and pediatrician, Claudius Galen, a talented anatomist who discovered the functions of nerves and the brain.

Encyclopedic treatises written during the Roman era remained the most important source of scientific knowledge for most of the Middle Ages.

The legacy of ancient Rome

Roman culture, with its developed ideas about the expediency of things and actions, about the duty of a person to himself and the state, about the importance of law and justice in the life of society, supplemented ancient Greek culture with its desire to understand the world, a developed sense of proportion, beauty, harmony, a pronounced game element ... Ancient culture, as a combination of these two cultures, became the basis of European civilization.

The cultural heritage of Ancient Rome can be traced in scientific terminology, architecture, and literature. For a long time, Latin has been the language of international communication for all educated people in Europe. Until now, it is used in scientific terminology. On the basis of the Latin language in the former Roman possessions, the Romance languages ​​arose, which are spoken by the peoples of a large part of Europe. Among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans is the Roman law they created, which played a huge role in the further development of legal thought. It was in the Roman dominions that Christianity arose and then became the state religion - a religion that united all European peoples and greatly influenced the history of mankind.

Historiography

Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli, also during the Enlightenment in France.

The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon, "The History of the Decline and Collapse of the Roman Empire", which covered the period from the end of the II century to the fall of a fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon appreciated the virtue of Roman citizens, at the same time, the disintegration of the empire according to him began already under Commodus, and Christianity became the catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside.

Niebuhr became the founder of the critical movement and wrote the work "Roman History", where it is brought up to the First Punic War. Niebuhr attempted to establish how the Roman tradition arose. In his opinion, the Romans, like other peoples, had a historical epic, preserved mainly in noble families. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, considered from the angle of the formation of the Roman community.

In the Napoleonic era, V. Durui's work "History of the Romans" appeared, emphasizing the then popular Caesarian period.

A new historiographic milestone was opened by the work of Theodor Mommsen, one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. An important role was played by his voluminous work "Roman History", as well as "Roman State Law" and "Collection of Latin Inscriptions" ("Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum").

Later came the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero - "The Greatness and Fall of Rome." The work of I.M. Grevs "Essays on the history of Roman land tenure, mainly in the era of the Empire," where, for example, information appeared about the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners of the end of the Republic, and the model of the average estate of the August era was considered the economy of Horace.

Against the hypercriticism of the works of the Italian E. Pais, who denied the authenticity of the Roman tradition until the 3rd century AD. NS. , De Sanctis spoke in his History of Rome, where, on the other hand, information about the tsarist period was almost completely denied.

The study of Roman history in the USSR was closely associated with Marxism-Leninism, which did not have specialized works at its core and was based on such frequently cited works as "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State", "Chronological Extracts", "Forms preceding capitalist production "," Bruno Bauer and early Christianity, "etc. The emphasis was on slave uprisings and their role in Roman history, as well as agrarian history.

Much attention was paid to the study of ideological struggle (S. L. Utchenko, P. F. Preobrazhensky), which was seen even in the most favorable periods of the empire (N. A. Mashkin, E. M. Shtaerman, A. D. Dmitrev, etc.) ...

Attention was also paid to the conditions of the transition from the Republic to the empire, considered, for example, in Mashkin's work "Principate of Augustus" or in "Essays on the History of Ancient Rome" by V. S. Sergeev, and the provinces, in the study of which A. B. Ranovich stood out.

Among those who studied the relations of Rome with other states, A.G. Bokshchanin stood out.

Since 1937, the "Bulletin of Ancient History" began to appear, where articles on Roman history and archaeological excavations began to be frequently published.

After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, the History of Rome by SI Kovalev and The History of the Roman People by the critic VN Dyakov were published in 1948. In the first work, the Roman tradition is considered reliable in many ways; in the second, doubts were expressed on this score.

see also

Primary sources

• Dio Cassius. "Roman history"
• Ammianus Marcellinus. "Acts"
• Polybius. "General history"
• Publius Cornelius Tacitus. "History", "Annals"
• Plutarch. "Comparative Biographies"
• Appian. "Roman history"
• Sextus Aurelius Victor. "On the origin of the Roman people"
• Flavius ​​Eutropius. "Breviary from the founding of the city"
• Guy Valley Paterculus. "Roman history"
• Publius Anney Flor. "Epitomes of Titus Livy"
• Herodian. "History of Rome from Marcus Aurelius"
• Diodorus of Siculus. "Historical Library"
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Roman Ancient History"
• Guy Suetonius Tranquill. "Biography of the Twelve Caesars"
• The so-called "Authors of the Biographies of August" ( Scriptores Historiae Augustae): Aelius Spartian, Julius Capitolinus, Vulcation Gallican, Aelius Lampridius, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius ​​Vopisk

Fragments

• Gnei Nevy. "Punia War"
• Quintus Annius. "Annals"
• Quint Fabius Pictor. "Annals"
• Lucius Cincius Aliment. "Chronicle"
• Mark Porcius Cato the Elder. "Beginnings"
• Pompey Trog. "Filippov's story"
• Guy Sallust Crisp. "Yugurt war"
• Granny Licinian

Later fundamental works

• Theodor Mommsen Roman history.
• Edward Gibbon The history of the decline and destruction of the Roman Empire.
• Platner, Samuel Ball. A topographical dictionary of Ancient Rome

Notes (edit)

Links

• X Legio - Military equipment of antiquity (including fragments of Russian translations of Roman authors and articles on the military affairs of Ancient Rome)
• Roman glory Antique military art
• The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
• The Art of Ancient Rome - Photo Gallery by Stevan Kordich

Reform of Servius Tulia

A powerful blow to the patrician clan organization was struck in the middle of the 6th century BC. the reform of Servius Tullius, the sixth rex in Roman historical tradition. It was carried out as a military reform, but its social consequences went far beyond the limits of only military affairs, having a decisive role in the formation of the ancient Roman state.

The original Roman army was predominantly patrician. The plebeians were not part of the military organization. There was a discrepancy between the population of Rome and the number of soldiers it exhibited. And the aggressive policy demanded an increase in troops and expenses for the conduct of wars. The need to involve plebeians in military service became obvious. Therefore, the entire population of Rome was divided by property qualification into 5 categories, each of which was obliged to put up a certain number of military units - centuries.

Ranks Number of exposed Property qualifications

centuri in uger in ass

• 1 80 from 20 100.000
• 2 20 20 - 15 75.000
• 3 20 15 - 20 50.000
• 4 20 15 - 5 25.000
• 5 30 less than 5 11.000

This is how the central organization looked like depending on the property qualification.

In addition to these centuries, there were also 18 equestrian centuries from the richest Romans, with a qualification of over 100,000 asses (of which six were exclusively patrician); and also five unarmed centuri: two artisans, two musicians and one of the poor, who were called proletarians. Thus, there were a total of 193 centuries.

The centuria of each of the five categories were divided into two parts: one of them, the old one, which included the Romans from 45 to 60 years old, was intended for garrison service; the other - wars from 17 to 45 years old - the youngest, was intended for military campaigns.

To assess the property of citizens, the entire territory of Rome was divided into tribes, which had nothing to do with the previous three tribal tribes. New, territorial tribes were initially created 21: 4 urban and 17 rural. Troops were recruited and a tax was collected for military needs.

Over time, the army consisting of the centuries began to take part in solving issues related not only to war and military affairs. Gradually, the decisions of affairs, which were previously in charge of the collection of Roman patricians for the curia, passed to the centuriate assemblies. Traditionally, the centuria met outside the city limits, and the curiate meetings were held in the city. There, a new kind of popular assembly arose, in which both patricians and plebeians were represented - centuriate assemblies.

Each of the 193 centuries had one vote when voting. The richest Romans, mostly patricians, - horsemen and centuriates of the 1st category, had 98 votes, which provided them with an advantage in solving any issues. However, the patricians prevailed in the centuriate assemblies not as such, by virtue of their ancestral privileges, but as the wealthiest landowners. Therefore, the plebeians could get into these centuries. Consequently, the plebeians emerged from their isolated position in relation to the Roman community.

Thus, the important social significance of the reform of Servius Tullius consisted in the fact that it laid the foundations for a new organization of Roman society, not only by gentile, but by property and territoriality.

Nevertheless, the clan system was not yet completely crushed. And only gradually, the centuriate assemblies supplanted the tribal organization. This took place in a fierce struggle between the plebeians and the patricians, which became especially acute after the overthrow of the last Rex. In the entire process of the formation of the Roman state, a significant place is occupied by wars, the military organization of the population. The creation of a new militia by Servius Tullius, which replaced the patrimonial squads, served to destroy the ancient patriarchal system and form new orders of a political nature. Having eliminated the tribal division of the population and dividing the entire society, including the plebeians, into property categories, Servius Tullius thereby deprived of almost all significance of the tribal nobility and the tribal organization. At the same time, his reform served as the basis for the creation of the Roman army in the form of a slave militia. The army now consisted only of propertied citizens, whose armament and the nature of military service depended on the size of the property. It is important to keep in mind that the centuriate organization was also intended for political purposes, since the centuriate comitia acquired the right to decide the most important political issues. The centuriate comitia were assemblies of the army, in which 98 first-class centuries were already in the majority against 95 centuries of all other ranks combined. The purpose of such a political organization is quite obvious. It was defined by Cicero: voting in the new comitia was to be in the power of the rich, and not the masses of the people.

Thus, in the VI-V centuries. BC. the property difference in Rome was reflected in its military organization. The participation of this or that citizen in the protection of communal property and in its joint disposal depended on the size of the owned land plot. At this stage, public power is concentrated in the hands of citizens liable for military service.

For the registration and approval of the state in Rome, the division of the population according to the reform of Servius Tullius into territorial districts - tribes was of great importance. According to the territorial tribes, a qualification was carried out, according to which citizens were enrolled in one or another Servian category, depending on their property status. In addition, the tribes were recruited into the army and a tax was collected from citizens for military needs. The basis of the new division of the population was to satisfy, first of all, the military needs of the state and the organization of state unity, therefore it can be called a military-administrative division. The supreme command in the army was exercised by the body of the patrician nobility - the Senate. The Senate played a huge role in the declaration of war and in all matters related to the conduct of wars, distributed command among the magistrates, rewarded commanders, and allocated funds for the conduct of the war.

The masters received high command from the centuriate comitia (praetors, consuls) or from the senate (dictators). They embodied the institution of the supreme command. All the main Roman masters, according to the reform of Servius Tullius, were associated with the military department: the quaestors were in charge of military expenses; censors, carrying out the census, determined the military and tax obligations of citizens. The officers were divided into higher and lower ones. The lower officers were, at the direction of Servius Tullius, the commanders of the centuries. They were promoted to this position from among ordinary legionnaires and, as a rule, did not reach higher posts. The highest officers were military tribunes, legates, quaestors and chiefs of cavalry. The military tribunes belonged to the senate or equestrian class and usually began their political career with this service. Each legion had six tribunes. Legates, immediate assistants to the commander-in-chief, were appointed by the senate and were themselves senators. They commanded legions or their formations. Persons liable for military service were considered citizens between the ages of 17 and 60 who met the property qualification requirement. The infantrymen who had served for at least 16-20 years (participants - 16-20 campaigns), and horsemen who had served at least 10 years were exempted from military service. Persons who owned land, but were unfit for military service, instead of conscription, paid money for the maintenance of rider horses. The recruitment was carried out for each military campaign. During the reform period of Servius Tullius, the army "took" upon itself the performance of a number of important functions, internal and external, economic: supplying the economy with slaves and material values. The growth of the magistracy was due to conquests. Thus, the complication of the state apparatus was largely due to the military factor. So at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC. a slave-owning Roman state was created, which was characterized by class and territorial division of the population, special public power and taxes necessary for its maintenance. It existed in the form of a slave republic. Rome of this period is a city-state in which free citizens jointly owned the state land fund and had private land. At the same time, they were an association of warriors protecting the land. This same military organization embodies the main power of the ruling class and plays a leading role within the state. Its elements were the centuriate and tributary comitia, where three types of power are concentrated. The army here acts as an organ of power and coercion at the same time.

Thus, the reform of Servius Tullius was carried out as a military reform, but its social consequences went far beyond the limits of only military affairs, having a decisive role in the formation of ancient Roman statehood.

She laid the foundations for a new organization of Roman society, not by family, but by property and territoriality. The result of the class struggle of the plebeians with the patricians was that the clan system was undermined by division into classes and replaced by a state organization, and the plebeians emerged from their isolated position in relation to the Roman community. Nevertheless, the clan system was not yet completely crushed. The organization of power based on the clan system continued to exist alongside the new one, and only gradually the new one replaced it. War and organization for war were regular functions of public life; public power was concentrated in the hands of citizens liable for military service. The military organization embodied the main power of the ruling class and played a leading role within the state. For the registration and approval of the state in Rome, the division of the population according to the reform of Servius Tullius into territorial districts - tribes was of great importance. Also, the reform made it possible to create a powerful, trained army of Ancient Rome to conduct an aggressive policy.

17th question

During the period of the republic, the organization of power was quite simple and for some time met the conditions that were in Rome at the time of the emergence of the state.

Over the next five centuries of the republic's existence, the size of the state increased significantly. But this almost did not affect the structure of the supreme organs of the state, which were still in Rome and exercised centralized control over vast territories. Naturally, this situation reduced the efficiency of management and became, over time, one of the reasons for the fall of the republican system. Unlike the slave-owning democracy in Athens, the Roman Republic combined aristocratic and democratic features, with a significant predominance of the former, which ensured the privileged position of the noble wealthy elite of the slave-owners. This was reflected in the powers and relationships of the highest state bodies. They were the popular assemblies, the senate and magistrates. Although the popular assemblies were considered the organs of power of the Roman people and were the personification of the democracy inherent in the polis, they did not predominantly rule the state. This was done by the senate and magistrates - the organs of real power of the nobility. In the Roman Republic, there were three types of popular assemblies - centuriate, tributary and curiate. The main role was played by the centuriate assemblies, which, through their structure and order, ensured the decision-making of the prevailing aristocratic and wealthy slave-owning circles. True, their structure is from the middle ||| v. BC. with the expansion of the limits of the state and the increase in the number of free ones, it changed not in their favor: each of the five categories of possessing citizens began to exhibit an equal number of centuries - 70 each, and the total number of centuri the centuri of the higher ranks had much fewer citizens than the centuria of the lower ranks, and the poor proletarians, whose numbers had increased significantly, still constituted only one century. The competence of the centuriate assembly included the adoption of laws, the election of the highest officials of the republic (consuls, praetors, censors), the declaration of war and the consideration of complaints against death sentences. The second type of popular assemblies was represented by tributary assemblies, which, depending on the composition of the inhabitants of the tribes who participated in them, were divided into plebeian and patrician-plebeian. At first, their competence was limited. They elected lower officials (quaestors, aediles, etc.) and considered complaints against sentences on the recovery of a fine. Plebeian assemblies, in addition, elected a plebeian tribune, and from the 111th century. BC. they also received the right to pass laws, which led to an increase in their importance in the political life of Rome. But at the same time, as a result of the increase in the number of rural tribes to 31 by this time (with the remaining 4 urban tribes, there were only 35 tribes), it became difficult for residents of distant tribes to appear in the meetings, which allowed the rich Romans to strengthen their positions in these meetings. After the reforms of Servius Tullius, the curiae meetings lost their former importance. They only formally introduced to office persons elected by other assemblies, and, in the end, were replaced by a meeting of thirty representatives of the curia - lictors.

Popular assemblies in Rome were convened at the discretion of senior officials, who could both interrupt the meeting and postpone it to another day. They also presided over the meeting and announced the issues to be resolved. The meeting participants could not change the submitted proposals. Voting on them was open and only at the end of the republican period was secret voting introduced (special voting tables were distributed to the meeting participants). An important, most often decisive role was played by the fact that the decisions of the centuriate assembly on the adoption of laws and the election of officials in the first century of the republic's existence were subject to approval by the Senate, but also then, when in the 111th century. BC. "this rule was canceled, the Senate received the right to preliminary consideration of issues brought to the assembly, which allowed him to actually direct the activities of the assembly.

The Senate played an important role in the state mechanism of the Roman Republic. Senators (at first there were 300, according to the number of patrician families, and in the 1st century BC the number of senators was increased first to 600, and then to 900) were not elected. Special officials - censors, who distributed citizens to centuri and tribes, once every five years compiled lists of senators from representatives of noble and wealthy families, who, as a rule, already held senior government positions. This made the Senate an elite body of the slave-owners, virtually independent of the will of the majority of free citizens.

Formally, the senate was an advisory body, and its decrees were called senatus-consults. But the competence of the Senate was extensive. He, as indicated, controlled the legislative activities of the centuriate (and then plebeian) assemblies, approving their decisions, and subsequently preliminary considering (and rejecting) bills. In exactly the same way, the election of officials by the people's assemblies was controlled (first by the confirmation of the elected, and later - the candidates).

An important role was played by the fact that the state treasury was at the disposal of the Senate. He set taxes and determined the necessary financial expenses. The competence of the Senate included decrees on public safety, improvement and religious worship. The foreign policy powers of the Senate were of great importance. If war was declared by the centuriate assembly, then the peace treaty, as well as the treaty of alliance, was approved by the Senate. He also allowed recruitment into the army and distributed the legions among the commanders of the armies. Finally, in extraordinary circumstances (a dangerous war, a powerful uprising of slaves, etc.), the Senate could decide to establish a dictatorship.

Public positions were referred to as masters in Rome. As in Ancient Athens, in Rome there were certain principles for replacing master's degrees. These principles were electivity, urgency, collegiality, gratuitousness and responsibility.

All magistrates (except for the dictator) were elected by the centuriate or tributary assemblies for one year. This rule did not apply to dictators whose term of office could not exceed six months. In addition, the powers of the consul in command of the army, in the event of an uncompleted military campaign, could be extended by the Senate. As in Athens, all magistracy were collegial - several people were elected to one position (one dictator was appointed). But the specificity of collegiality in Rome was that each magistrate had the right to independently make decisions. This decision could be overturned by his colleague (right of intercession). The magistrates did not receive remuneration, which, naturally, closed the way to magistrates (and then to the Senate) for the poor and the poor. At the same time, master's degrees, especially at the end of the republican period, became a source of significant income. Magistrates (with the exception of the dictator, censor, and plebeian tribune), after the expiration of their term of office, could be held accountable by the popular assembly that elected them.

It is necessary to note one more significant difference between the Roman magistracy - the hierarchy of positions (the right of a higher magistrate to cancel the decision of a lower one).

The magistrates' power was subdivided into supreme and general. This power belonged to the dictator, consuls and praetors. The dictator had "the highest imperium", which included the right to sentence to death, not subject to appeal. The consul belonged to a large imperium - the right to pass a death sentence, which could be appealed in the centuriate assembly if it was passed in the city of Rome, and not subject to appeal if it was passed outside the city. The praetor had a limited imperium - without the right to sentence to death.

Power belonged to all magistrates and included the right to issue orders and impose fines for non-compliance.

Masters were divided into ordinary (ordinary) and extraordinary (extraordinary). Ordinary master's degrees included the positions of consuls, praetors, censors, quaestors, aediles

Consuls (in Rome, two consuls were elected) were the highest magistrates and headed the entire system of magistrates. Especially significant were the military powers of the consuls: recruiting and commanding the army, appointing military leaders, the right to conclude a truce and dispose of war booty. Praetors appeared before the Common Era. as assistant consuls. Due to the fact that the latter, commanding the armies, were often absent from Rome, the praetors took over the management of the city and, most importantly, the leadership of the legal proceedings, which, by virtue of their imperium, allowed them to issue generally binding decrees and thereby create new norms of law. First, one praetor was elected, then two, one of whom dealt with the cases of Roman citizens (the city praetor), and the other with the participation of foreigners (the praetor of the peregrines). Gradually the number of praetors increased to eight.

Two censors were elected every five years to draw up lists of Roman citizens, distribute them according to tribes and ranks, and to draw up a list of senators. In addition, they were responsible for monitoring morality and issuing appropriate edicts. Quaestors, who were at first assistants to the consuls without special competence, eventually began to be in charge (under the control of the Senate) of financial expenses and the investigation of some criminal cases. Their number, respectively, grew and by the end of the republic reached twenty. The Ediles (there were two of them) observed public order in the city, trade in the market, organized festivals and spectacles.

The collegia of the "twenty-six husbands" consisted of twenty-six people, who were members of five collegia in charge of overseeing prisons, minting coins, cleaning roads, and some court cases.

Plebeian tribunes occupied a special place among the masters.

Their right played an important role at the end of the plebeian struggle for equality. Then, as the role of the Senate increased, the activity of the plebeian tribunes began to decline, and the attempt of Gaius Gracchus in the 11th century. BC. to strengthen it ended in failure. Extraordinary magistracy was created only in extraordinary circumstances threatening the Roman state with special danger - a difficult war, a large uprising of slaves, serious internal unrest. The dictator was appointed at the suggestion of the senate by one of the consuls. He possessed unlimited power, to which all magistrates were subject. The right of the che1o plebeian tribune did not apply to him, the orders of the dictator were not subject to appeal, and he was not responsible for his actions.

True, in the first centuries of the republic's existence, dictatorships were introduced not only in extraordinary circumstances, but for the solution of specific tasks and the powers of the dictator were limited to the framework of this task. Outside its borders, ordinary magistracy operated. During the heyday of the republic, they hardly resorted to dictatorship.

The term of the dictatorship was not to exceed six months.

At the same time, during the crisis of the republic, this rule was violated and even life-long dictatorships appeared (the dictatorship of Sulla "for the publication of laws and the structure of the state").

The commissions of decemvirs, formed during one of the upsurges of the struggle of plebeians for their rights to prepare the Laws of X11 tables, created

18th question

The power of the emperors is gradually increasing. The need for its disguise by republican institutions and the influence of republican traditions, manifested in the periodically arising conflicts between the emperor and the senate, are becoming a thing of the past. By the end of the II century. the Senate is finally removed from government. It passes to the bureaucratic and military apparatus headed by the emperor. At the end of the III century. the monarchy is affirmed in its pure form Chernilovsky Z.M. Reader on the general history of state and law. M. 1999.

It is customary to divide the period of the empire into two stages: 1) principate (1st century BC - 3rd century AD), from "princeps-senatus" - the first senator. This title was first received from the Senate by the founder of the empire, Octavian Augustus, who was placed first in the list of senators and received the right to speak first in the Senate, which made it possible to predetermine the decisions of the latter; 2) dominat (III-V centuries), from "dominus" - lord, lord, which testified to the final recognition of the absolute power of the emperor.

Principle. The transition of state administration to the princeps took place thanks to the empowerment of the imperium with supreme power, the election to the most important positions, the creation of an official apparatus separate from the magistrates, provided by the formation of its own treasury of the princeps, and the command of all armies. Already Octavian received an imperium, which, in addition to the traditional command of the army (he took over command of all armies), the right to declare war, conclude peace and international treaties, maintain his own guard (praetorian cohorts), the right of a higher criminal and civil court, the right to interpret laws. The rulings of the princeps are beginning to be seen as having the force of law, and by the end of the principate it will be generally accepted that "what the princeps decides has the force of law." The princes are elected in violation of republican traditions simultaneously by consuls, censors and tribunes (Octavian was elected consul 13 times, censor 3 times and tribune 37 times). As a consul, he could, using the right of intercession, cancel the decision of any magistrate, as a censor - to form a senate from his supporters, as a tribune - to veto a decision of the Senate or a decision of a magistrate. In addition, Octavian received the title of pontiff - the high priest in charge of the administration of religious cults. The princeps' power was not originally hereditary. Legally, he received power by the decision of the Senate and the Roman people, but he could indicate his successor (usually a son or adopted son), whom the Senate elected the princeps. At the same time, there were more and more cases of the overthrow of the princeps and the appointment of new ones as a result of palace coups carried out with the help of the army. Octavian's successors began to exercise the same powers, gradually increasing the power of the princeps, although at first they had to sometimes overcome the opposition of the Senate. The competence of the Senate is changing significantly. Since from the popular assemblies only tributary ones have survived, which, moreover, were convened less and less, from the 1st century. Senate rulings - Senatus consultees receive the force of law. But the right of the princeps to appoint senators and the periodically carried out by the princeps "purges" of the senate led to the fact that from the II century. the senate practically only approved the princeps' proposals. Almost the same thing happened with the right to elect and control magistrates, which passed from the popular assembly to the senate - some of them could only be elected from candidates proposed by the princeps. The Senate's powers to administer public finances and govern the provinces are limited. His competence in the military and foreign policy areas is completely lost Karavaev A.K. History of Ancient Rome. M. 2000.

In parallel with the republican magistracy, an imperial bureaucratic apparatus was created, at the top of which stood the council and the office of the princeps, which included several departments with a staff of officials. The council included prefects, "friends" of the emperor, heads of departments of the chancellery. The office included the departments of finance, petitions, official correspondence, personal property of the emperor, the imperial court, etc. Members of the council, which performed advisory functions, and the heads of departments of the office were appointed by the princeps himself from among his entourage. The emperor's freedmen and even his slaves began to receive official positions. The highest officials appointed from senators and equestrians were the praetorian prefect who commanded the imperial guard, the prefect of the city of Rome, who was in charge of the police cohorts, the prefect of Egypt, the prefect in charge of food supplies, etc.

There was a reorganization of the administration of the provinces, which became integral parts of the Roman state. They were divided into imperial and senate. The former were ruled by legates appointed by the princeps, who exercised military and civil power with the help of their own council and chancellery, the latter - by proconsuls and propraetors appointed by the senate, elected from among the senators by lot and were in double subordination - the senate and the princeps. The bureaucratic apparatus being created did not represent a harmonious system and was, especially in the first centuries of the empire, relatively small in number. But in comparison with the republican one, it ensured a more effective management of the sprawling state due to the emerging centralization and hierarchy of bureaucracy. The division of the provinces into imperial and senate provinces had another important consequence. Revenues from the Senate provinces went to the state treasury, which was controlled by the Senate, while revenues from the imperial provinces went to the treasury of the princeps. Since the former included a few (11 out of 45), long-conquered and, therefore, plundered provinces by Rome, the Senate treasury was permanently meager, and sometimes empty. The imperial provinces were relatively recently conquered, and plundering was just beginning, which gave the princeps enormous incomes, increased by receipts from the imperial estates and the widely practiced proscriptions. The Senate sometimes had to borrow money from the Princeps. Gradually, the power of the princeps extended to the Senate provinces, and by the 3rd century. they all became imperial.

Army. The right to command the army and the ability to maintain it at the expense of not only the state, but also their own treasury allowed the princes to turn it into a powerful support for personal and state power. Moreover, the army is turning into an influential political force, on which the fate of the princeps himself sometimes depended. If under the republic the unity of political power and military power was personified by the centuriate assembly of citizens liable for military service and the Senate, which controlled the army, now this unity was personified by the princeps. In Rome, a single military-bureaucratic management organization emerges. After the transition to a professional army, it turns into a corporate organization. Octavian reorganized it into three parts. A privileged position was occupied by the Praetorian Guard. Her cohorts under Octavian numbered 9,000. The Praetorians were recruited from Roman citizens of Italic origin and received a salary 3.5 times higher than the legionnaires, served 16 years and, after their retirement, had substantial assets and joined the ranks of the ruling class. The bulk of the army (under Octavian 300,000 people) were legionnaires, recruited from the citizens of the Roman provinces. They served for 20 years and received a salary that allowed, after retirement, to start a small slave farm and join the provincial nobility. The third part of the army consisted of auxiliary troops (numbering up to 200,000 people), recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces who did not have the rights of Roman citizens. And although their salary was three times less than that of the legionnaires, and the term of service was 25 years, and the discipline was tougher and the punishment was harsher, service in the auxiliary troops still attracted the opportunity to obtain Roman citizenship, and for the poor, and to save some funds. After the aforementioned edict of Caracalla, which gave Roman citizenship to all free empires, the social difference between the legionary and auxiliary units disappears, the corporate spirit of the army grows, which further increases its political role.

Dominat. Already during the principate period, the slave system in Rome began to decline, and in the II-III centuries. its crisis is brewing. The social and class stratification of the free is deepening, the influence of large landowners is increasing, the importance of the labor of colonials is increasing and the role of slave labor is decreasing, the municipal system is declining, the polis ideology is disappearing, and the cult of traditional Roman gods is being replaced by Christianity. The economic system based on slaveholding and semi-slaveholding forms of exploitation and dependence (colonies) not only ceases to develop, but also begins to degrade. By the III century. slave revolts, almost unknown to the initial period of the principate, are becoming more frequent and widespread. Columns and the free poor join the rebellious slaves. The situation is complicated by the liberation movement of the peoples conquered by Rome. From wars of conquest, Rome begins to move to defensive ones. The struggle for power between the warring factions of the ruling class is sharply escalating. After the reign of the Sever dynasty (199-235), a half-century era of "soldier emperors", brought to power by the army and ruled for six months, a year, at most five years, begins. Most of them were killed by the conspirators. The principate suppressed the spirit of civicism among the Romans, republican traditions have now gone into the distant past, the last stronghold of republican institutions - the senate finally submitted to the princeps. From the end of the III century. begins a new stage in the history of the empire - the dominat, during which Rome turned into a monarchical state with the absolute power of the emperor.

The final transition to the dominate dates back to 284 and the coming to power of Diocletian, who ordered to call himself Dominus. The titles of the emperor - Augustus and Dominus emphasized the unlimited nature of his power. As a rule, emperors were deified, and some of them after death were declared gods with their religious cults. The population of the empire turned from citizens into subjects of the emperor, who began to be considered even as his slaves - servos. The council of the princeps, which existed under the principate, turns into a council of state - a consistorium. A developed apparatus of officials, divided into ranks, with a defined hierarchy and rules for promotion is emerging. With the separation of civilian power from military, civilian and military officials emerge. The third group of officials stands apart - the courtiers, headed by the manager of the emperor's palace who plays an important role. In contrast to the principate, the old republican institutions have lost all national significance. Rome was ruled by a prefect appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him. The Senate became the council of the city of Rome, and the magistrates became municipal officials. The military organization has also changed. In connection with the massive uprisings of slaves and conquered peoples, as well as the increased need to protect the state from the invasion of Germanic, Slavic and Asia Minor tribes, the army is divided into mobile (to suppress the uprisings) and border troops. "Barbarians" gain wide access to the army, and sometimes the armed forces of their tribes are used. The Praetorian Guard, which played an important role in the era of the "soldier emperors", was transformed into a palace guard, which, however, sometimes also determined the fate of the emperors. The general imperial police were headed by the head of the imperial chancellery (in Rome - the prefect of the city), the developed secret police - by the prefect of the praetorium. The reforms of Diocletian, enshrined and developed in the legislation of Constantine, were of great importance for the further destinies of the empire. Diocletian carried out economic, military and administrative reforms. In the economic field, Diocletian tried to stem the depreciation of money by issuing coins with a low content of the precious metal. He issued full-fledged gold and silver coins, but they soon disappeared from circulation, and had to return to issuing low-quality coins. Tax reform proved to be more effective. Most of the taxes began to be levied not in kind, but in money. In order to ensure the collection of taxes, a periodically repeated population census was introduced. Taxation in rural areas was based on the size of land ownership and the number of people working on the land. Poll taxation was introduced in the cities. Since landowners and city officials were responsible for paying taxes, the reform contributed to the attachment of the bulk of the rural and urban population (colonies and artisans) to their place of residence and profession. The military reform, which consolidated the formation of border and mobile troops, introduced, in addition to the existing recruitment of volunteers, a recruitment to the army. Landowners, depending on the size of their landholdings, were obliged to supply a certain number of recruits from the colonies and agricultural workers. Diocletian's administrative reform had the most far-reaching consequences. The difficult internal political situation, the difficult foreign policy situation of the empire, the far-reaching processes of the economic isolation of the provinces, and the endless coups d'etat of the times of the "soldier emperors" that preceded Diocletian's coming to power, forced him in 285 to appoint a co-ruler - Caesar. A year later, Caesar was proclaimed Augustus, with the same authority as Diocletian's to govern part of the empire. The empire was divided into two parts - western and eastern. True, the legislation still remained the same, since the laws were issued on behalf of both emperors. Each of them appointed a co-ruler - Caesar. As a result, a tetrarchy arose, consisting of four parts, including 100 provinces. Rome was allocated to a special 100th province, but the city of Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire. The capital of the Western Empire was moved to Mediolan (Milan) and then to Ravenna. Nicomedia, located on the eastern coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara, became the capital of the Eastern Empire. After the twenty years of Diocletian's reign and the ensuing power struggle between his successors, the period of the thirty-year reign of Constantine (306-337) begins, once again restoring the unity of power. Constantine continued the economic reforms of Diocletian. The new monetary reform turned out to be more successful and led to the stabilization of monetary circulation. The streamlining of taxation further strengthened the anchoring of pillars and artisans to the land and profession. The edict of Constantine turned the craft colleges into hereditary ones, and by the decree (constitution) "On the Fugitive Columns" of 332, the fugitive columns returned to their plots and had to work chained up like slaves. The persons who harbored the fugitive columns had to pay taxes for them as punishment. In the military field, the warrior's profession became hereditary. The army began to widely attract barbarians who received Roman citizenship and the opportunity to advance up the career ladder up to the highest positions. The administrative reform of Diocletian was also completed. Although the tetrarchy was abolished, two prefectures were formed in each of the two parts of the empire, ruled by prefects with civil authority. Military power in the prefectures belonged to the military masters - two chiefs of infantry and two chiefs of cavalry. Prefectures were divided into dioceses (6 in the western part of the empire and 7 in the eastern), headed by vicars, dioceses - into provinces ruled by rectors, provinces - into districts with district administration. If these measures of Constantine were a continuation of the work begun by Diocletian, then in matters of religious policy, the first moved to positions opposite to Diocletian. Diocletian in the Christian church saw an organization autonomous from the state and, therefore, prevented the establishment of autocracy, and therefore he prohibited the practice of Christian religious rites, the destruction of churches, and persecution of Christians. Constantine, however, grasped that Christianity from the religion of the poor and the oppressed, as it was at the time of its inception, has turned into a religion that can strengthen the state system by ideological means. He saw in the Christian church a strong support for the absolute power of the emperor, which led to a sharp turn in religious policy. In 313, by an imperial edict, Christianity was recognized as equal with other religions that existed in the empire, and then, after the baptism of Constantine in 337, it was the state religion. The army, the bureaucracy and the Christian church become the three main pillars of the dominat - military, political and ideological. Finally, given that the eastern part of the empire was relatively less western than the western one was attacked by barbarian tribes and was economically more developed, Constantine moved his capital there - to the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, giving it a new name Constantinople. In 330, Constantinople was officially declared the capital of the empire. The transfer of the capital to Constantinople consolidated the process of the disintegration of the empire into two parts, leading in 395 to its final division into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The economic isolation and political division of the empire coincided with a period of further deepening of the general crisis of the slave system and was its manifestation and result. The division of a single state was objectively an attempt to prevent the death of this system, which was destroyed by a fierce political and ideological struggle, uprisings of conquered peoples, invasions of barbarian tribes, from which the Western Roman Empire suffered especially. In 476, the commander of the imperial guard, the German Odoacer, overthrew the last Roman emperor from the throne and sent the signs of imperial dignity to Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

Ancient Rome

After Romulus, according to the testimony of ancient Roman historians, 6 more kings ruled in Rome:

1. Numa Pompillius
2. Tull Hostillius
3. Ankh Marcius
4. Servius Tullius
5. Tarquinius the Proud

Historians consider the first three kings legendary, and the kings of the "Etruscan dynasty" were real historical figures, the history of whose accession is still controversial among scientists. Therefore, this period in the history of Rome is called "royal".

Roman community

The Roman community is created. According to legend, Romulus gave the community the correct organization, created a Senate - a council of elders of 100 people, who, together with the king and the assembly of the people, began to rule Rome.

The rulers of the Etruscan dynasty created an interesting and unique culture on the territory of Italy. The Etruscans stood in the 7th - 6th centuries BC. at a higher level of development than the Romans, therefore, with the accession of the Etruscan dynasty to Rome, both the appearance of the city and the nature of the royal power changed. For example, Servius Tullius surrounded the city with a fortress wall and carried out a very important reform - he divided all the inhabitants of Rome into five property classes and distributed, depending on their state, the rights and obligations of the population of the city.

The last king, Tarquin the Proud, was a tyrant, he surpassed all in cruelty and arrogance. The idea of ​​the supreme indivisible power - "empires" - and the external signs of its distinction appeared: the king wears a purple robe, sits on an ivory throne, he is accompanied by a retinue of lecturers of 24 people carrying faszs - bundles of rods with an ax in the middle. Fascs meant the right of the king to decide the question of the life and death of any member of the community. Of course, the Romans did not like this, and they expelled the entire royal family from the city, and the royal power was abolished (510 BC). Anyone who tried to restore it was declared an enemy of the people and sentenced to death. Instead of kings, they began to elect two officials - consuls. The first consuls, the Romans elected Lucius Brutus and Collatinus, and the Roman state began to be called "republic", which means "common cause". The Roman community now consisted of 2 estates: patricians and plebeians, later settlers, who were denied access to the patrician tribal organization and their authorities.

Initially, it was very archaic: at its head were kings, whose power still resembled the power of a leader. The kings led the city militia, performed the functions of the supreme judge and priest. An important role in the management of Ancient Rome was played by senate - council of elders of clans. The full-fledged inhabitants of Rome - patricians - gathered for popular meetings, where kings were elected and decisions were made on the most important issues of the city's life. In the VI century. BC NS. plebeians received some rights - they were included in the civic community, were allowed to vote and received the opportunity to own land.

At the end of the VI century. BC NS. in Rome, the power of the kings was replaced by an aristocratic republic, in which the patriots played a leading role. Despite the fact that the state structure of Rome was named republic, that is, the "common cause", real power remained in the hands of the most noble and wealthy part of Roman society. During the period of the Roman Republic, the nobility was called nobles.

The citizens of ancient Rome - nobili, horsemen and plebeians - formed a civil community - civitas... The political system of Rome during this period was called a republic and was built on the principles of civil self-government.

Comitia (supreme power)

The supreme power belonged to the assembly of the people - comitia. All citizens who reached the age of majority were members of the people's assemblies. The commissions passed laws, elected collegia of officials, made decisions on the most important issues in the life of the state and society, such as the conclusion of peace or the declaration of war, exercised control over the activities of officials and in general over the life of the state, introduced taxes, and granted civil rights.

Masters (executive branch)

The executive power belonged to master's degrees. The most important officials were two consul who headed the state and commanded the army. Below them were two praetor who were in charge of legal proceedings. Censors carried out a census of the property of citizens, that is, they determined belonging to a particular class, and also exercised control over the rights. Tribunes of the people, elected only from among the plebeians, were obliged to defend the rights of ordinary citizens of Rome. The tribunes of the people often put forward draft laws in the interests of the plebeians and, in this regard, opposed the senate and the nobles. An important instrument of the tribunes of the people was the right veto - a ban on orders and actions of any officials, including consuls, if, in the opinion of the tribunes, their actions infringed upon the interests of the plebeians. There were also other master's degrees in which master-you engaged in a variety of current affairs.

Senate

In the state system of the Roman Republic, the Senate played a very important role - a collective body, which usually consisted of 300 representatives of the highest Roman aristocracy. The Senate discussed the most important issues of state life and made decisions for approval by the people's assemblies, heard reports from officials, and received foreign ambassadors. The importance of the Senate was great, and in many respects it was he who determined the domestic and foreign policy of the Roman Republic.

Principate

After the establishment of imperial power in Ancient Rome in the first, early, period of the Roman Empire, it began to be called principate.

Dominat

After the crisis of the Roman Empire, Diocletian took the place of the emperor. The unlimited monarchy he established was named dominate.

In the late Roman Empire, the central power was weakening more and more. The change of emperors often took place by force - as a result of conspiracies. The provinces were out of the control of the emperors.

The Great Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the greatest civilizations of the Ancient World. Before its heyday and for a long time after the collapse, the Western world did not know a more powerful state than Ancient Rome. In a short period of time, this power was able to conquer vast territories for itself, and its culture continues to influence humanity to this day.

History of Ancient Rome

The history of one of the most influential states of Antiquity began with small settlements located on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. In 753 BC. NS. these settlements united into a city called Rome. It was founded on seven hills, in a swampy area, in the very epicenter of constantly conflicting peoples - Latins, Etruscans and ancient Greeks. From this date, chronology began in Ancient Rome.

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According to an ancient legend, the founders of Rome were two brothers - Romulus and Remus, who were children of the god Mars and the vestal Remy Sylvia. Once at the center of the conspiracy, they were on the verge of death. The brothers were saved from certain death by a she-wolf who fed them with her milk. As they matured, they founded a beautiful city that was named after one of the brothers.

Rice. 1. Romulus and Rem.

Over time, perfectly trained warriors emerged from ordinary farmers, who managed to conquer not only all of Italy, but also many neighboring countries. The system of government, language, achievements of culture and art of Rome spread far beyond its borders. The decline of the Roman Empire fell on 476 BC.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome

The formation and development of the Eternal City is usually divided into three most important periods:

• Tsarsky ... The most ancient period of Rome, when the local population consisted mostly of fugitive criminals. With the development of crafts and the formation of the state system, Rome began to develop at a rapid pace. During this period, the power in the city belonged to the kings, the first of whom was Romulus, and the last - Lucius Tarquinius. The rulers did not receive power by inheritance, but were appointed by the Senate. When manipulations and bribery began to be used to obtain the coveted throne, the Senate decided to change the political structure in Rome and proclaimed a republic.

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Slavery was widespread in ancient Greek society. The greatest privileges were enjoyed by slaves who served the masters in the house. The hardest hit was the slaves, whose former activities were associated with exhausting work in the fields and the development of mineral deposits.

• Republican ... During this period, all power belonged to the Senate. The borders of Ancient Rome began to expand through the conquest and annexation of the lands of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Macedonia, and the Mediterranean. The republic was headed by representatives of the nobility, who were elected at a national assembly.
• The Roman Empire ... Power still belonged to the Senate, but a single ruler appeared on the political arena - the Emperor. During that period of time, Ancient Rome increased its territories so much that it became more and more difficult to govern empires. Over time, the power split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern, which was later renamed Byzantium.

Urban planning and architecture

The construction of cities in ancient Rome was approached with great responsibility. Each large settlement was built in such a way that two perpendicular roads intersect in its center. At their intersection was the central square, the market and all the most important buildings.

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Engineering thought in ancient Rome reached its peak. The local architects were especially proud of the aqueducts - water conduits through which a large volume of clean water was supplied to the city every day.

Rice. 2. Aqueduct in Ancient Rome.

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One of the oldest temples in Ancient Rome was the Capitol, built on one of the seven hills. The Capitoline Temple was not only the focus of religion, it was of great importance in strengthening the state and served as a symbol of the strength, power and might of Rome.

Numerous canals, fountains, an excellent sewerage system, a network of public baths (thermal baths) with hot and cold pools made life much easier for city dwellers.

Ancient Rome became famous for its roads, which provided troops and postal services with rapid movement, contributed to the developed trade. They were built by slaves who dug deep trenches and then filled them with gravel and stone. Roman roads were so solid that they could safely survive for more than one hundred years.

Culture of Ancient Rome

Deeds worthy of a true Roman were philosophy, politics, agriculture, war, civil law. The early culture of Ancient Rome was based on this. Special attention was paid to the development of sciences and various kinds of research.

Ancient Roman art, in particular painting and sculpture, had a lot in common with the art of Ancient Greece. A single ancient culture gave birth to many wonderful writers, poets, playwrights.

The Romans were very fond of entertainment, among which gladiator fights, chariot races and hunting wild animals were in greatest demand. Roman spectacles have become an alternative to the incredibly popular Olympic Games in ancient Greece.

Rice. 3. Gladiator fights.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic "Ancient Rome", we briefly learned the most important thing about Ancient Rome: the history of its origin, features of the formation of the state, the main stages of development. We got acquainted with ancient Roman art, culture, architecture.

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