Society is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely related to it.

Society in the broadest sense is a set of forms of uniting people, ways of their interaction.

Society is a dynamic system, because individual elements are interconnected and can change and develop. The system means it consists of elements, integrity.

Society together with nature forms the material world around a person.

The structure of society: social, economic, political, spiritual spheres, or subsystems of society.

3 types of society:

Traditional (agrarian) - low social mobility, significant role of religion, the population is employed in agriculture, the owner of resources is the state, there is a community, a traditional economy.

Industrial - social mobility has increased, the role of science is great, an industrial revolution has taken place, the population is employed in industry, private property, a market economy, individuality and initiative have begun to be encouraged.

Postindustrial (informational) - the role of information and inf is great. technology, science.

Evolution is gradual change, change. A quick transition to the new is a revolution. The transformation of any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existence of the social structure is a reform.

The global problems of mankind are problems that arose in the 2/2 of the XX century. and posing a threat to human existence. Terrorism, ecological problem, raw materials, demographic, war and peace, poverty of the "third world" countries. THEM CANNOT BE SOLVED by the efforts of SEVERAL countries, only all together, and they WILL AFFECT ALL COUNTRIES without exception.

Man is a biosocial being. Differences from animals - creative activity, the ability to transform the environment, articulate speech, labor activity.

Individual - a set of external characteristics (eye color, hair, height, etc.).

Individuality is the originality of the natural and social in a person.

Personality - socially significant qualities of a person (helps others), only in interaction with other people can you express yourself as a person.

Socialization is the assimilation of knowledge and social roles. Without it, a person will not become part of society.

Need is a person's need for something. Biological - taking care of offspring, food, clothing, water, self-preservation, physical development, health. Social - the need for communication, respect, creative realization, education. Inclinations - a predisposition to activity, but develop into ability only in society, in the learning process. Those. inclinations - the basis of abilities. Abilities are individual personality traits that allow her to successfully engage in a certain activity. The formation of abilities depends on natural prerequisites - the inclinations.

Activities:play, work, study, communication.

Activity structure: motive, goal, means, actions, result.

Self-knowledge is the process of studying your “I”, getting ideas about your abilities, your appearance. It can be carried out in communication, play, work, requires special knowledge and efforts. In the process of self-knowledge, a person compares himself with others and listens to the opinions of people.

Cognition - the desire to obtain objective information, true knowledge about the subject.

2 types: Sensory cognition: sensation (reflection in the mind of a person of individual sides of an object), perception (reflection of the object in its integrity), performance (preservation of the image of an object even without contact with it).

Rational: concept, judgment, inference.

Ordinary knowledge - obtained in practice. Scientific - is the result of purposeful activity. Art is in the form of artistic images.

A distinctive feature of social cognition is the coincidence of the object and the subject of cognition, since man studies man.

Culture is everything created by man; all types of industrial, social and spiritual activities. "Culture" from lat. "Methods of cultivating the land." Culture is second nature.

3 forms of culture: folk (folklore), mass (for all, pop culture), elite (for connoisseurs - classical music).

Art - painting, architecture, sculpture, theater, literature, dance, music, etc. Characterized by subjectivity, sensory reflection of reality, the use of artistic images.

Education is the process of familiarizing yourself with the values ​​of humanity.

obligatory basic general (9 classes).

11 classes - secondary (complete) general.

College, technical school - specialized secondary. University - institute, academy, university - higher education.

School education: primary, basic, complete general.

Economy: two meanings - as an economy - the production of goods and services; as a science, it studies how the economy and individual processes operate.

Economic goods are goods and services that satisfy needs.

The production of economic goods requires resources, or factors of production. Labor, land, capital, entrepreneurial ability. Incomes of FP owners: labor - wages, land - rent, capital - interest, enterprises. ability is profit.

The main problem of the economy is that needs are unlimited, and available resources are limited.

The three main questions of economics: what to produce? how to produce? for whom to produce?

Depending on how society answers these questions, a certain type of economic system is formed: traditional, command (planned, directive), market.

Traditional - mainly subsistence farming, everything is according to tradition, the market is practically absent, the supreme owner of the land is the state.

Command - the USSR, the state determines the volume of production, prices, distributes goods and services, is the owner of all resources.

Market - based on private property, market mechanisms - the laws of supply and demand, the state intervenes in the economy only in the event of a crisis, regulation consists in determining the rules of the market - licensing, legal base. This system is more correctly called mixed, because a purely market economy cannot exist.

Demand law - ceteris paribus, the demand for the product changes in reverse depending on the price. Those. the price falls - the demand rises.

Supply law- the offer of a product (the desire to sell it, the number of sellers of this product) changes in straight depending on the price (the more expensive the product, the more people want to sell it).

With the interaction of supply and demand, it is establishedmarket equilibrium... If there is more product than the demand for it, then there is a surplus of the product. If it is less than demand, there is a deficit.

State budget - a plan of government expenditures and revenues. Drawn up by the government, adopted by the Federal Assembly. The main source of income is taxes.

The economically active population, or labor force, includes the employed (including farmers, deputies, students, schoolchildren) and the unemployed. Housewives are not unemployed because not looking for work. They are unoccupied.

The main goal of the company is profit. She = revenue minus production costs.

Costs are constant (do not depend on the volume of production - rent of the office of the company, salary of management personnel, payment of stationary telephones) and variables (depends on how much the company produces - spending on raw materials, fuel costs, workers' wages).

According to another criterion, the costs are divided by external (when resources are rented or purchased from another person) and internal (for example, the office of the firm belongs to the owner, and he does not pay for it. But he could have rented and, possibly, received more).

Law - a set of generally binding rules of conduct established by the state and ensured in the event of failure to comply with the force of state coercion.

Law is a set of normative legal acts. The most important is the Basic Law of the country - the Constitution (adopted by popular vote - referendum - December 12, 1993). In second place are federal laws (adopted by the Federal Assembly). Everything that is below the law is by-laws: Decrees of the President, Resolutions of the Government, Orders and instructions of ministries.

Power in the Russian Federation is divided into three branches:

Legislative (represented by the Federal Assembly)

Executive (government, consists of ministers)

Judicial (justices of the peace, district and city courts, regional, federal). Federal courts: Supreme (the highest instance for criminal, administrative, family, civil offenses), Supreme Arbitration (economic disputes between legal entities), Constitutional (checks all regulations for compliance with the Constitution, makes comments on the Basic Law).

A social group is an association of people on any basis: profession, age, origin, common interests. Groups are formal (their activities are recorded in documents) and informal (courtyard company).

Social status is a person's position in society. Determined by origin, level of income, power, education, includes gender.

Status - 2 types: achievable (you need to make mental efforts to achieve - engineer, driver, military, student) and prescribed (biological characteristics - retired, 20 years old, woman, man).

Human behavior within the framework of social status is a social role. Role acceptance is personal. For example, social. role - teacher. But one is strict, the other is democratic.

The division of society into social groups is social stratification, because group, layer is often called stratum.

In India, society was divided into castes, in the Middle Ages and modern times - estates, in the USSR - into classes.

Marginal people are people of an intermediate state (refugees, displaced persons). Lumpen - social bottom - homeless, vagabonds.

The transition of a person from one social group to another is social mobility.

Horizontal - moving without changing social. status. For example, a teacher moved from one school to another.

Vertical - increase or decrease in social status. If the promotion - upward vertical mobility - was a cadet, became a group commander. Descent - downward vertical mobility. For example, they demoted a military man.

Social norms are the rules of human behavior in society. Moral - reflect the idea of ​​good and evil. Legal - established and supported by the state.

Deviant behavior (deviant) - violation of social norms. Maybe positive (the engineer stayed on after the end of the working day). Therefore, it does not always entail punishment.

Social control- the society monitors the implementation of social services. norm. The measure of a negative or positive impact on a person from society - social. sanction.

Sanctions are formal and informal, negative and positive.

A person himself can control his behavior by self-control.

Family functions - reproductive (reproduction), leisure, social status, emotional. The family differs from other social groups in the presence of consanguinity.

Types of families: extended (3 generations live together) and nuclear (parents + children); patriarchal (man is the main one) and partnerships.

Interethnic relations have two tendencies: integration (EU) and differentiation (the desire to isolate, separate, separatism).

Human and society

In a broad sense, society is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely related to it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

In a narrow sense, society -

1. A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly.

2. A separate concrete society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society).

3. Historical stage in the development of mankind (for example, feudal society, capitalist society).

4.Humanity as a whole

Public relations Are diverse forms of human interaction, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).

- the interacting parts of society, its main components.

Social norms- the rules of conduct, which evolved in accordance with the needs of society.

The emergence of man and the emergence of society are a single process. If there is no person, there is no society. If there is no society, there is no man. One might argue: Robinson Crusoe, once on a desert island, found himself out of society, but was a man. However, those who think so forgets: Robinson was able to survive only because he had knowledge, experience in various activities, in addition, he found some items from the lost ship. And knowledge, and work skills, and objects are all products of society. Let us recall that not a single child who grew up among animals had knowledge, work skills, did not know how to use objects created in human society.

In everyday life, a society is sometimes called a group of people who are part of someone's social circle; Societies are also called some voluntary associations of people for some kind of activity (society of book lovers, Red Cross society, etc.). In science, a society is a part of the world that is different from nature. In the broadest sense of the word, this is all of humanity. It includes not only all living people. Society is understood as continuously developing. This means that it has not only the present, but also the past and the future. Generations of people who lived in the distant and very recent past did not leave without a trace. They created cities and villages, technology, and various institutions. From them, people living now received language, science, art, and practical skills. If it were not so, then every generation would have to start with the invention of the stone ax.

Functions of society:

production of goods of life; systematization of production; human reproduction and socialization;

distribution of labor results; ensuring the legality of the state's administrative activities;

structuring the political system; the formation of ideology; historical transmission of culture and spiritual values

The structure of society is complex. It includes large and small groups of people. As society develops, interactions and relationships not only between individuals, but also between various large and small groups of people become more and more complex and diverse. The interconnections and interdependencies that people enter in the course of their activities are called public relations.

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All four spheres interact with each other. Basic human needs serve as the basis for differentiating the spheres of public life. A need is a state of a person, created by the need he experiences for objects and actions necessary for his existence and development and serving as a source of his activity, organizing cognitive processes, imagination and behavior.

Needs groups: biological: needs for food, sleep, air, warmth, etc.

social, which are generated by society and are necessary for a person to interact with other people.

spiritual: the need for knowledge of the world around and of the person himself.

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Physiological: the need for food, food, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in the future, etc.

Social: the need for communication, for caring for others, for understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-esteem, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

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It means that:

This system, while changing, retains its essence and qualitative certainty.

Society as a dynamic system changes its forms, develops

The connection of all spheres of society's life follows from the integrity of society as a system

Super complex system

Multilevel (each individual is included in different subsystems)

Highly organized, self-governing system (the control subsystem is especially important)

Traditional society Is a concept that denotes a set of societies, social structures that stand at different stages of development and do not have a mature industrial complex. The defining production sphere of such societies is agriculture. The main social institutions are the church and the army.

Industrial society Is a society characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor with a high degree of its specialization, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, widespread introduction of innovations into production and people's lives. The defining production area of ​​an industrial society is industry.

Post-industrial society Is a society in whose economy, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution and a significant increase in the income of the population, there has been a transition from the predominant production of goods to the production of services. Information and knowledge become a productive resource. Scientific research is the main driving force behind the economy.

Human and society

Nature in the broad sense of the word is the whole world in all the infinity of its forms and manifestations. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the entire material world, with the exception of society, i.e. a set of natural conditions for the existence of human society. The concept of "nature" is used to designate not only natural, but also man-made material conditions of his existence - "second nature", to one degree or another transformed and formed by man.

Society as a part of nature isolated in the process of human life is inextricably linked with it. This relationship is as follows: in society, people are gifted with consciousness and have goals, while in nature there are blind, unconscious forces.

The separation of man from the natural world marked the birth of a qualitatively new material unity, since man has not only natural properties, but also social ones.

Society came into conflict with nature in two respects: 1) as a social reality, it is nothing more than nature itself; 2) it purposefully, with the help of labor instruments, affects nature, changing it.

At first, the contradiction between society and nature appeared as their difference, since man still had primitive tools of labor, with the help of which he earned his means of livelihood. However, in those distant times, there was no longer a complete dependence of man on nature. As the tools of labor improved, society exerted an increasing impact on nature. Man cannot do without nature also because the technical means that make his life easier are created by analogy with natural processes.

As soon as it was born, society began to have a very significant impact on nature, somewhere improving it, and somewhere worsening it. But nature, in turn, began to "worsen" the characteristics of society, for example, by reducing the quality of health of large masses of people, etc. Society as a separate part of nature and nature itself have a significant impact on each other. At the same time, they retain specific features that allow them to coexist as a dual phenomenon of earthly reality. This close relationship between nature and society is the basis of the unity of the world.

So, man, society and nature are interconnected. Man simultaneously lives in nature and in society, is a biological and social being. In social science, nature is understood as the natural habitat of a person. It can be called the biosphere or the active shell of the Earth, which creates and protects life on our planet. Industrialization and the scientific and technological revolution in the 20th century led to the disruption of the natural human habitat, to the ripening of a conflict between human society and nature - an ecological crisis. In the modern world, in 15 years, as much natural resources are consumed as was used by mankind during its entire previous period of existence. As a result, the area of ​​forests and land suitable for agriculture is decreasing. Climatic changes are taking place, which can lead to a deterioration in living conditions on the planet. Environmental changes negatively affect human health. New diseases appear, the carriers of which (microbes, viruses and fungi) become more dangerous due to the increase in population density and the weakening of the human immune system. The diversity of flora and fauna is decreasing, and this threatens the stability of the earth's shell - the biosphere. About 1 billion tons of standard fuel is burned annually, hundreds of millions of tons of harmful substances, soot, ash and dust are emitted into the atmosphere. Soils and waters are littered with industrial and domestic wastewater, oil products, mineral fertilizers, and radioactive waste. Nature has also always influenced human life. Climate and geographic conditions are all significant factors that determine the development paths of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and lifestyle.

The main spheres of society

Society can be subdivided into four areas, or spheres.

The economic sphere is in many respects decisive in relation to other spheres. It includes industrial and agricultural production, relations between people in the production process, the exchange of products of production activity, their distribution.

The social sphere includes strata and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, family and household relations, educational institutions, medical services, and leisure.

The political sphere of society's life includes state power, political parties, relations between people associated with the use of power to realize the interests of certain social groups.

The spiritual sphere encompasses science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and the corresponding activities of people.

So, we have identified four main areas of modern society. They are closely related and influence each other. For example, if the country's economy does not fulfill its tasks, does not provide the population with a sufficient amount of goods and services, does not expand the number of jobs, then the standard of living drops sharply, there is not enough money to pay wages and pensions, unemployment appears, and crime increases. In other words, successes in one, economic, sphere affect well-being in another, social. Economics influences politics as well. When, in the early 90s, economic reforms in Russia led to a sharp stratification of the population, i.e. the emergence of very rich people at one pole, and very poor at the other, political parties oriented towards communist ideology became more active.

1.4. Biological and social in man

(Baranov P. A. Social Studies: Express-tutor for preparation for the exam: "Man." "Knowledge" / P. A. Baranov, -M: ACT: Astrel, 2009. S. 15 - 17)

Man is the highest stage in the development of living organisms on Earth. Man is essentially a biosocial being. He is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are fused together, and only in such a unity does he exist. The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition for existence, and sociality is the essence of a person. The biological nature of man is manifested in his anatomy, physiology; it possesses the circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. Its biological properties are not rigidly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various conditions of existence. Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with others. The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.

The main differences between humans and animals

 The person has thinking and articulate speech

 A person is capable of conscious purposeful creative activity.

 A person in the process of his activity transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values ​​he needs.

 A person is able to make tools of labor and use them as a means of producing material goods.

 A person reproduces not only his biological, but also social essence and therefore must satisfy not only his material, but also spiritual needs.

Personality is understood as a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a society. Personality is a product of social development and the inclusion of individuals in the system of social relations through active objective activity and communication. The behavior of an individual as a person essentially depends on his relationship with the people around him.

Adolescence is a stage of personality development that usually starts at 11-12 and lasts up to 16-17 years - the period when a person enters "adulthood".

This age is a period of growing up, characterized by intense psychological and physical changes, rapid physiological restructuring of the body. The teenager begins to grow rapidly - the growth rate can only be compared with the prenatal period and the age from birth to 2 years. Moreover, the growth of the skeleton is faster than the development of muscle tissue, hence the awkwardness, disproportion, angularity of the figure. The volume of the heart and lungs and the depth of breathing increase sharply to provide the growing organism with oxygen. Significant fluctuations in blood pressure, often upward, and frequent headaches are also characteristic.

There is a serious hormonal change, puberty. In girls, the amount of estrogen increases, in boys - testosterone. In both sexes, an increase in the level of adrenal androgens is observed, causing the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Hormonal changes cause sudden mood swings, increased, unstable emotionality, uncontrollable mood, increased excitability, impulsivity.

In some cases, symptoms such as depression, restlessness and poor concentration, irritability appear. The teenager may develop anxiety, aggression, and problematic behavior. This can be expressed in conflicting relationships with adults. Risk addiction and aggression are self-affirmative techniques. Unfortunately, this may lead to an increase in the number of juvenile delinquents.

Studying ceases to be the main and most important task. According to psychologists, personal communication with peers becomes the leading activity at this age. The productivity of mental activity decreases due to the fact that the formation of abstract, theoretical thinking occurs, that is, concrete thinking is replaced by logical thinking. It is the mechanism of logical thinking that is new for the adolescent that explains the growth of criticality. He no longer takes the postulates of adults on faith, he requires proof and justification.

At this time, the teenager's life self-determination takes place, plans for the future are formed. There is an active search for their "I" and experimentation in different social roles. The teenager is changing himself, trying to understand himself and his capabilities. Requirements and expectations of other people change. He is forced to constantly adjust, adapt to new conditions and situations, but this does not always happen successfully.

A strong desire to understand oneself (self-knowledge) is often detrimental to the development of relations with the outside world. An internal crisis of adolescent self-esteem arises in connection with the expansion and growth of opportunities, on the one hand, and the preservation of children's and school status, on the other.

Many psychological problems arise: self-doubt, instability, inadequate self-esteem, most often underestimated.

In the same period, the formation of the worldview of a young man takes place. It sometimes goes through rejection of values, active rejection and violation of established rules, negativism, search for oneself and one's place among others. The teenager experiences an internal conflict: emerging adult ideological issues create a feeling of global undecidability. Minors often believe in the uniqueness of their own problems and experiences, which leads to feelings of loneliness and depression.

The striving for leadership in a peer group is characteristic. Of great importance is the adolescent's feeling of belonging to a special "teenage" community, the values ​​of which are the basis for their own moral assessments. The teenager strives to follow the fashions and ideals of the youth group. Mass media have a huge influence on their formation. This age is characterized by the desire to recognize their own merits in their significant adolescent environment. An urgent need for recognition and self-affirmation comes to the fore. The world around is splitting into “friends” and “aliens”, and the relationship between these groups in the minds of adolescents is sometimes sharply antagonistic.

Psychologists note that the contradiction of adolescence often lies in the fact that the child seeks to obtain the status of adults and adult opportunities, but is in no hurry to assume the responsibility of adults, avoiding it. The teenager often refuses to accept the assessments and life experiences of the parents, even if he understands their correctness. He wants to get his own unique and inimitable experience, make his mistakes and learn from them.

The behavior of an individual as a person essentially depends on his relationship with the people around him. Such relationships with one person, group (large or small) are called interpersonal relationships. They can be classified for various reasons.

1. Official and unofficial. Relationships that develop between people due to their official position are called official (for example, teacher - student, headmaster - teacher, President of the Russian Federation - head of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.). Such relations are built on the basis of officially approved rules and norms (for example, on the basis of the Charter of an educational institution, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, etc.), in compliance with any formalities. Relationships that arise between people in connection with their joint work can also be called business.

2. Informal relationships (they are often called personal relationships) are not governed by the rule of law, there is no corresponding legal basis for them. They are formed between people, regardless of the work performed and are not limited by the established formal rules.

At the heart of interpersonal relationships are certain feelings of people, their relationship to another person. Feelings fluctuate between two poles - sympathy (internal disposition, attractiveness of a person) and antipathy (internal dissatisfaction with a person, dissatisfaction with his behavior). A person perceives another person primarily on the basis of his appearance, and then, adding up his impressions of his words, actions and character traits, forms a general impression of him. Consequently, the perception of any personality is based on the relationship of character, behavior and external appearance of a person.

Scientists-psychologists identify several factors that interfere with the correct perception and assessment of people. These include:

inability to distinguish between intentions and motives of people's actions;

inability to understand the state of affairs and the well-being of people at the time of observing them;

the presence of predetermined attitudes, assessments, beliefs that a person has long before the first acquaintance (for example: “What can he say to me that I don’t know? ..”);

the presence of stereotypes, according to which all people are in advance assigned to a certain category (for example: “All boys are rude”, “All girls cannot keep their mouths”);

the desire to make premature conclusions about a person's personality long before sufficient and comprehensive information is obtained about him;

lack of desire and habit to listen to the opinions of other people, the desire to rely only on their own opinion.

Normal relationships between people develop when there is a desire and need to sympathize, empathize with other people, and put oneself in the position of another person.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships that develop between individuals. They are often accompanied by feelings of emotions, expressing the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types: Official and informal; Business and personal; Rational and emotional; Subordinate and parity.

The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance. Under certain conditions, acquaintance develops into a closer interpersonal relationship - friendship and love. Friendship can be called positive interpersonal relationships based on mutual openness, complete trust, community of interests, people's loyalty to each other, constant readiness to come to each other's aid at any time.

Love is the highest spiritual feeling of a person, rich in various emotional experiences, based on noble feelings and high morality, accompanied by a willingness to do everything possible for the well-being of a loved one.

The psychology and behavior of an individual as a person essentially depend on the social environment in which people are united into numerous, diverse, more or less stable compounds, called groups. They are divided into large (state, nation, party, class, etc.) and small groups. A person always depends primarily on the influence of a small group, which is a small association of people - from 2-3 (for example, a family) to 20-30 (for example, a school class), who are engaged in some common cause and are in direct relationship with each other. friend. Such small groups represent an elementary unit of society, it is in them that a person spends most of his life.

The members of the small group are characterized by common goals, tasks of activity, psychological and behavioral characteristics. The measure of psychological community determines the cohesion of the group.

On the basis of joint activity, the following types of small groups are distinguished: industrial, family, educational, sports, etc.

By the nature of the relationship between group members, they are divided into formal (official) and informal (unofficial). Formal groups are created and exist only within the framework of officially recognized organizations (for example, a school class, a sports team "Spartak", etc.). Informal groups usually arise and exist on the basis of the personal interests of their members; they may coincide or differ from the goals of official organizations. These include, for example, a poetry circle, a bard song lovers club, an organization of fans of a football club, etc.

One and the same person is simultaneously a member of indefinitely many small groups, and in each of them his position (status) changes. For example, the same person is the younger brother, the student in the class, the captain of the soccer team, the bass player in a rock band, etc.

The group always has a significant impact on the psychology and behavior of a person through his relationship with the rest of the group. And this influence can be both positive and negative. The positive impact on a small group person is that:

relationships between people, developing in groups, teach a person to fulfill existing social norms, they carry value guidelines that are assimilated by a person;

the group is the place where a person works out his communication skills and abilities;

from the group members, a person receives information that allows him to perceive and evaluate himself correctly, to preserve and strengthen everything positive in his personality, to get rid of negative and shortcomings;

the group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development.

For normal psychological development, a person must have the most objective knowledge about himself. Otherwise, as from other people, in the process of direct communication with them, he cannot receive this knowledge. The group and its constituent people are for the personality a kind of mirrors in which the human "I" is reflected. The accuracy and depth of reflection of a person in a group directly depend on the openness, intensity and versatility of the person's communication with the rest of the group. For the development of the individual as a personality, the group seems to be indispensable, especially if the group is a close-knit highly developed collective.

In addition to the positive impact, the group can also have a negative impact on the person. This happens, for example, when the goals of a group are achieved by infringing on the interests of its individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society. In psychology, this is called group egoism.

Another possible negative consequence of group influence may be the effect that is usually exerted on gifted creative individuals. The famous scientist V.M. Bekhterev, after conducting a series of individual and group experiments in which the indicators of the creative work of a group and an individual were compared, found out that in creativity a group can be inferior to especially gifted individuals. Their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and such individuals, being under strong psychological pressure from the majority, are restrained and suppressed in their development. History of Russia XX century. she knew many examples when outstanding composers, artists, scientists, writers were expelled from trade unions and even persecuted.

Sometimes a person, in order to stay in a group, goes into internal conflict and behaves conformally, becomes a conformist. A person's behavior is called conformal, in which he, deliberately disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on any considerations.

There are three ways a person responds to group pressure. The first is suggestibility, when a person unconsciously accepts the line of behavior, the opinion of the group. The second is conformism, i.e. conscious external agreement with internal disagreement with the opinion of the group. The third way to respond to a group's demand is to consciously agree with the group's opinion, to accept and actively defend its values, norms and ideals.

Forms of communication: interpersonal, intergroup, intersocial, between the individual and society, between the group and society.

Interpersonal conflicts (Latin conffictus - collision) is a clash of opposing interests, views, aspirations, a serious disagreement, a sharp dispute between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. The causes of such conflicts are both social and psychological divisions. They occur due to misunderstanding between people, loss and distortion of information in the process of interaction between people, differences in the methods of assessing each other's activities and personality, psychological incompatibility, etc. Psychological incompatibility is understood as an unsuccessful combination of temperaments and characters of interacting persons, a contradiction in life values, ideals, motives, goals of activity, a mismatch in worldview, ideological attitudes, etc.

The subject of the conflict
Conflict phases:

Conflict resolution- the decision of the parties to the conflict to reconcile and end the confrontation. The conflict is considered settled if the parties managed to agree (friends made it up). When reconciliation is impossible, it is an unresolved conflict. Conflicts are inevitable in human society. Therefore, an important skill of every person living in society is the ability to seek and find a way out of conflicts.

In conflicts, as a rule, one of the participants assesses the behavior of the other as unacceptable. The reasons for conflicts can also be insufficient psychological stability, an overestimated or underestimated level of claims, a choleric type of temperament, etc.

In adolescents, the causes of conflicts can be heightened self-esteem, maximalism, categorical and unambiguous moral criteria, assessments of facts, events, and their own behavior.

To successfully resolve the conflict, you must:

Adopt the mindset to resolve the conflict to a mutually beneficial agreement.

Correct your behavior in relation to your opponent: try to control your emotions, listen to a different point of view, identify the true goals, needs, needs of your opponent.

Try to find common ground in the position of your own and your opponent.

Preparing and conducting negotiations to resolve a conflict situation. If necessary, invite an intermediary.

There are 2 negotiation models:

The “mutual benefit” model, when they try to find solutions to the problem that fully satisfy the interests of both parties;

The "concessions - rapprochement" model.

It is favorable to organize joint activities at all stages of conflict resolution, to involve a partner in a joint process of searching for possible options for resolving the conflict.

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Human and society

1.1. Society as a form of human life

In a broad sense, society is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely related to it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

In a narrow sense, society -

1. A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly.

2. A separate concrete society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society).

3. Historical stage in the development of mankind (for example, feudal society, capitalist society).

4.Humanity as a whole

Public relationsAre diverse forms of human interaction, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).

Spheres (areas) of society- the interacting parts of society, its main components.

Social norms- the rules of conduct, which evolved in accordance with the needs of society.

The emergence of man and the emergence of society are a single process. If there is no person, there is no society. If there is no society, there is no man. One might argue: Robinson Crusoe, once on a desert island, found himself out of society, but was a man. However, those who think so forgets: Robinson was able to survive only because he had knowledge, experience in various activities, in addition, he found some items from the lost ship. And knowledge, and work skills, and objects are all products of society. Let us recall that not a single child who grew up among animals had knowledge, work skills, did not know how to use objects created in human society.

In everyday life, a society is sometimes called a group of people who are part of someone's social circle; Societies are also called some voluntary associations of people for some kind of activity (society of book lovers, Red Cross society, etc.). In science, a society is a part of the world that is different from nature. In the broadest sense of the word, this is all of humanity. It includes not only all living people. Society is understood as continuously developing. This means that it has not only the present, but also the past and the future. Generations of people who lived in the distant and very recent past did not leave without a trace. They created cities and villages, technology, and various institutions. From them, people living now received language, science, art, and practical skills. If it were not so, then every generation would have to start with the invention of the stone ax.

Functions of society:

production of goods of life; systematization of production; human reproduction and socialization;

distribution of labor results; ensuring the legality of the state's administrative activities;

structuring the political system; the formation of ideology; historical transmission of culture and spiritual values

The structure of society is complex. It includes large and small groups of people. As society develops, interactions and relationships not only between individuals, but also between various large and small groups of people become more and more complex and diverse. The interconnections and interdependencies that people enter in the course of their activities are calledpublic relations.

The main spheres of society.

All four spheres interact with each other. Basic human needs serve as the basis for differentiating the spheres of public life. A need is a state of a person, created by the need he experiences for objects and actions necessary for his existence and development and serving as a source of his activity, organizing cognitive processes, imagination and behavior.

Needs groups: biological: needs for food, sleep, air, warmth, etc.

social, which are generated by society and are necessary for a person to interact with other people.

spiritual: the need for knowledge of the world around and of the person himself.

Groups of needs according to A. Maslow:

Physiological: the need for food, food, breathing, movement, etc.

Existential: the need for security, comfort, confidence in the future, etc.

Social: the need for communication, for caring for others, for understanding, etc.

Prestigious: the need for self-esteem, recognition, success, etc.

Spiritual: the need for self-expression, self-actualization.

Society is a dynamic system.

It means that:

This system, while changing, retains its essence and qualitative certainty.

Society as a dynamic system changes its forms, develops

The connection of all spheres of society's life follows from the integrity of society as a system

Super complex system

Multilevel (each individual is included in different subsystems)

Highly organized, self-governing system (the control subsystem is especially important)

Types of societies (traditional, industrial, post-industrial)

Traditional societyIs a concept that denotes a set of societies, social structures that stand at different stages of development and do not have a mature industrial complex. The defining production sphere of such societies is agriculture. The main social institutions are the church and the army.

Industrial societyIs a society characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor with a high degree of its specialization, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, widespread introduction of innovations into production and people's lives. The defining production area of ​​an industrial society is industry.

Post-industrial societyIs a society in whose economy, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution and a significant increase in the income of the population, there has been a transition from the predominant production of goods to the production of services. Information and knowledge become a productive resource. Scientific research is the main driving force behind the economy.

Human and society

1.2. Interaction between society and nature

Nature in the broad sense of the word is the whole world in all the infinity of its forms and manifestations. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the entire material world, with the exception of society, i.e. a set of natural conditions for the existence of human society. The concept of "nature" is used to designate not only natural, but also man-made material conditions of his existence - "second nature", to one degree or another transformed and formed by man.

Society as a part of nature isolated in the process of human life is inextricably linked with it. This relationship is as follows: in society, people are gifted with consciousness and have goals, while in nature there are blind, unconscious forces.

The separation of man from the natural world marked the birth of a qualitatively new material unity, since man has not only natural properties, but also social ones.

Society came into conflict with nature in two respects: 1) as a social reality, it is nothing more than nature itself; 2) it purposefully, with the help of labor instruments, affects nature, changing it.

At first, the contradiction between society and nature appeared as their difference, since man still had primitive tools of labor, with the help of which he earned his means of livelihood. However, in those distant times, there was no longer a complete dependence of man on nature. As the tools of labor improved, society exerted an increasing impact on nature. Man cannot do without nature also because the technical means that make his life easier are created by analogy with natural processes.

As soon as it was born, society began to have a very significant impact on nature, somewhere improving it, and somewhere worsening it. But nature, in turn, began to "worsen" the characteristics of society, for example, by reducing the quality of health of large masses of people, etc. Society as a separate part of nature and nature itself have a significant impact on each other. At the same time, they retain specific features that allow them to coexist as a dual phenomenon of earthly reality. This close relationship between nature and society is the basis of the unity of the world.

So, man, society and nature are interconnected. Man simultaneously lives in nature and in society, is a biological and social being. In social science, nature is understood as the natural habitat of a person. It can be called the biosphere or the active shell of the Earth, which creates and protects life on our planet. Industrialization and the scientific and technological revolution in the 20th century led to the disruption of the natural human habitat, to the ripening of a conflict between human society and nature - an ecological crisis. In the modern world, in 15 years, as much natural resources are consumed as was used by mankind during its entire previous period of existence. As a result, the area of ​​forests and land suitable for agriculture is decreasing. Climatic changes are taking place, which can lead to a deterioration in living conditions on the planet. Environmental changes negatively affect human health. New diseases appear, the carriers of which (microbes, viruses and fungi) become more dangerous due to the increase in population density and the weakening of the human immune system. The diversity of flora and fauna is decreasing, and this threatens the stability of the earth's shell - the biosphere. About 1 billion tons of standard fuel is burned annually, hundreds of millions of tons of harmful substances, soot, ash and dust are emitted into the atmosphere. Soils and waters are littered with industrial and domestic wastewater, oil products, mineral fertilizers, and radioactive waste. Nature has also always influenced human life. Climate and geographic conditions are all significant factors that determine the development paths of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and lifestyle.

1.3. The main spheres of public life, their relationship

The main spheres of society

Society can be subdivided into four areas, or spheres.

The economic sphere is in many respects decisive in relation to other spheres. It includes industrial and agricultural production, relations between people in the production process, the exchange of products of production activity, their distribution.

The social sphere includes strata and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, family and household relations, educational institutions, medical services, and leisure.

The political sphere of society's life includes state power, political parties, relations between people associated with the use of power to realize the interests of certain social groups.

The spiritual sphere encompasses science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and the corresponding activities of people.

So, we have identified four main areas of modern society. They are closely related and influence each other. For example, if the country's economy does not fulfill its tasks, does not provide the population with a sufficient amount of goods and services, does not expand the number of jobs, then the standard of living drops sharply, there is not enough money to pay wages and pensions, unemployment appears, and crime increases. In other words, successes in one, economic, sphere affect well-being in another, social. Economics influences politics as well. When, in the early 90s, economic reforms in Russia led to a sharp stratification of the population, i.e. the emergence of very rich people at one pole, and very poor at the other, political parties oriented towards communist ideology became more active.

1.4. Biological and social in man

(Baranov P. A. Social Studies: Express-tutor for preparation for the exam: "Man." "Knowledge" / P. A. Baranov, -M: ACT: Astrel, 2009. S. 15 - 17)

Man is the highest stage in the development of living organisms on Earth. Man is essentially a biosocial being. He is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are fused together, and only in such a unity does he exist. The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition for existence, and sociality is the essence of a person. The biological nature of man is manifested in his anatomy, physiology; it possesses the circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. Its biological properties are not rigidly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various conditions of existence. Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with others. The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.

The main differences between humans and animals

Man possesses thinking and articulate speech

A person is capable of conscious, purposeful creative activity.

In the process of his activity, a person transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values ​​he needs.

A person is able to manufacture tools of labor and use them as a means of producing material goods.

A person reproduces not only his biological, but also social essence and therefore must satisfy not only his material, but also spiritual needs.

1.5. Personality. Features of adolescence

Personality is understood as a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a society. Personality is a product of social development and the inclusion of individuals in the system of social relations through active objective activity and communication. The behavior of an individual as a person essentially depends on his relationship with the people around him.

Adolescence is a stage of personality development that usually starts at 11-12 and lasts up to 16-17 years - the period when a person enters "adulthood".

This age is a period of growing up, characterized by intense psychological and physical changes, rapid physiological restructuring of the body. The teenager begins to grow rapidly - the growth rate can only be compared with the prenatal period and the age from birth to 2 years. Moreover, the growth of the skeleton is faster than the development of muscle tissue, hence the awkwardness, disproportion, angularity of the figure. The volume of the heart and lungs and the depth of breathing increase sharply to provide the growing organism with oxygen. Significant fluctuations in blood pressure, often upward, and frequent headaches are also characteristic.

There is a serious hormonal change, puberty. In girls, the amount of estrogen increases, in boys - testosterone. In both sexes, an increase in the level of adrenal androgens is observed, causing the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Hormonal changes cause sudden mood swings, increased, unstable emotionality, uncontrollable mood, increased excitability, impulsivity.

In some cases, symptoms such as depression, restlessness and poor concentration, irritability appear. The teenager may develop anxiety, aggression, and problematic behavior. This can be expressed in conflicting relationships with adults. Risk addiction and aggression are self-affirmative techniques. Unfortunately, this may lead to an increase in the number of juvenile delinquents.

Studying ceases to be the main and most important task. According to psychologists, personal communication with peers becomes the leading activity at this age. The productivity of mental activity decreases due to the fact that the formation of abstract, theoretical thinking occurs, that is, concrete thinking is replaced by logical thinking. It is the mechanism of logical thinking that is new for the adolescent that explains the growth of criticality. He no longer takes the postulates of adults on faith, he requires proof and justification.

At this time, the teenager's life self-determination takes place, plans for the future are formed. There is an active search for their "I" and experimentation in different social roles. The teenager is changing himself, trying to understand himself and his capabilities. Requirements and expectations of other people change. He is forced to constantly adjust, adapt to new conditions and situations, but this does not always happen successfully.

A strong desire to understand oneself (self-knowledge) is often detrimental to the development of relations with the outside world. An internal crisis of adolescent self-esteem arises in connection with the expansion and growth of opportunities, on the one hand, and the preservation of children's and school status, on the other.

Many psychological problems arise: self-doubt, instability, inadequate self-esteem, most often underestimated.

In the same period, the formation of the worldview of a young man takes place. It sometimes goes through rejection of values, active rejection and violation of established rules, negativism, search for oneself and one's place among others. The teenager experiences an internal conflict: emerging adult ideological issues create a feeling of global undecidability. Minors often believe in the uniqueness of their own problems and experiences, which leads to feelings of loneliness and depression.

The striving for leadership in a peer group is characteristic. Of great importance is the adolescent's feeling of belonging to a special "teenage" community, the values ​​of which are the basis for their own moral assessments. The teenager strives to follow the fashions and ideals of the youth group. Mass media have a huge influence on their formation. This age is characterized by the desire to recognize their own merits in their significant adolescent environment. An urgent need for recognition and self-affirmation comes to the fore. The world around is splitting into “friends” and “aliens”, and the relationship between these groups in the minds of adolescents is sometimes sharply antagonistic.

Psychologists note that the contradiction of adolescence often lies in the fact that the child seeks to obtain the status of adults and adult opportunities, but is in no hurry to assume the responsibility of adults, avoiding it. The teenager often refuses to accept the assessments and life experiences of the parents, even if he understands their correctness. He wants to get his own unique and inimitable experience, make his mistakes and learn from them.

1.7. Man and his immediate environment. Interpersonal relationships. Communication

The behavior of an individual as a person essentially depends on his relationship with the people around him. Such relationships with one person, group (large or small) are called interpersonal relationships. They can be classified for various reasons.

1. Official and unofficial. Relationships that develop between people due to their official position are called official (for example, teacher - student, headmaster - teacher, President of the Russian Federation - head of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.). Such relations are built on the basis of officially approved rules and norms (for example, on the basis of the Charter of an educational institution, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, etc.), in compliance with any formalities. Relationships that arise between people in connection with their joint work can also be called business.

2. Informal relationships (they are often called personal relationships) are not governed by the rule of law, there is no corresponding legal basis for them. They are formed between people, regardless of the work performed and are not limited by the established formal rules.

At the heart of interpersonal relationships are certain feelings of people, their relationship to another person. Feelings fluctuate between two poles - sympathy (internal disposition, attractiveness of a person) and antipathy (internal dissatisfaction with a person, dissatisfaction with his behavior). A person perceives another person primarily on the basis of his appearance, and then, adding up his impressions of his words, actions and character traits, forms a general impression of him. Consequently, the perception of any personality is based on the relationship of character, behavior and external appearance of a person.

Scientists-psychologists identify several factors that interfere with the correct perception and assessment of people. These include:

inability to distinguish between intentions and motives of people's actions;

inability to understand the state of affairs and the well-being of people at the time of observing them;

the presence of predetermined attitudes, assessments, beliefs that a person has long before the first acquaintance (for example: “What can he say to me that I don’t know? ..”);

the presence of stereotypes, according to which all people are in advance assigned to a certain category (for example: “All boys are rude”, “All girls cannot keep their mouths”);

the desire to make premature conclusions about a person's personality long before sufficient and comprehensive information is obtained about him;

lack of desire and habit to listen to the opinions of other people, the desire to rely only on their own opinion.

Normal relationships between people develop when there is a desire and need to sympathize, empathize with other people, and put oneself in the position of another person.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships that develop between individuals. They are often accompanied by feelings of emotions, expressing the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types: Official and informal; Business and personal; Rational and emotional; Subordinate and parity.

The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance. Under certain conditions, acquaintance develops into a closer interpersonal relationship - friendship and love. Friendship can be called positive interpersonal relationships based on mutual openness, complete trust, community of interests, people's loyalty to each other, constant readiness to come to each other's aid at any time.

Love is the highest spiritual feeling of a person, rich in various emotional experiences, based on noble feelings and high morality, accompanied by a willingness to do everything possible for the well-being of a loved one.

The psychology and behavior of an individual as a person essentially depend on the social environment in which people are united into numerous, diverse, more or less stable compounds, called groups. They are divided into large (state, nation, party, class, etc.) and small groups. A person always depends primarily on the influence of a small group, which is a small association of people - from 2-3 (for example, a family) to 20-30 (for example, a school class), who are engaged in some common cause and are in direct relationship with each other. friend. Such small groups represent an elementary unit of society, it is in them that a person spends most of his life.

The members of the small group are characterized by common goals, tasks of activity, psychological and behavioral characteristics. The measure of psychological community determines the cohesion of the group.

On the basis of joint activity, the following types of small groups are distinguished: industrial, family, educational, sports, etc.

By the nature of the relationship between group members, they are divided into formal (official) and informal (unofficial). Formal groups are created and exist only within the framework of officially recognized organizations (for example, a school class, a sports team "Spartak", etc.). Informal groups usually arise and exist on the basis of the personal interests of their members; they may coincide or differ from the goals of official organizations. These include, for example, a poetry circle, a bard song lovers club, an organization of fans of a football club, etc.

One and the same person is simultaneously a member of indefinitely many small groups, and in each of them his position (status) changes. For example, the same person is the younger brother, the student in the class, the captain of the soccer team, the bass player in a rock band, etc.

The group always has a significant impact on the psychology and behavior of a person through his relationship with the rest of the group. And this influence can be both positive and negative. The positive impact on a small group person is that:

relationships between people, developing in groups, teach a person to fulfill existing social norms, they carry value guidelines that are assimilated by a person;

the group is the place where a person works out his communication skills and abilities;

from the group members, a person receives information that allows him to perceive and evaluate himself correctly, to preserve and strengthen everything positive in his personality, to get rid of negative and shortcomings;

the group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development.

For normal psychological development, a person must have the most objective knowledge about himself. Otherwise, as from other people, in the process of direct communication with them, he cannot receive this knowledge. The group and its constituent people are for the personality a kind of mirrors in which the human "I" is reflected. The accuracy and depth of reflection of a person in a group directly depend on the openness, intensity and versatility of the person's communication with the rest of the group. For the development of the individual as a personality, the group seems to be indispensable, especially if the group is a close-knit highly developed collective.

In addition to the positive impact, the group can also have a negative impact on the person. This happens, for example, when the goals of a group are achieved by infringing on the interests of its individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society. In psychology, this is called group egoism.

Another possible negative consequence of group influence may be the effect that is usually exerted on gifted creative individuals. The famous scientist V.M. Bekhterev, after conducting a series of individual and group experiments in which the indicators of the creative work of a group and an individual were compared, found out that in creativity a group can be inferior to especially gifted individuals. Their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and such individuals, being under strong psychological pressure from the majority, are restrained and suppressed in their development. History of Russia XX century. she knew many examples when outstanding composers, artists, scientists, writers were expelled from trade unions and even persecuted.

Sometimes a person, in order to stay in a group, goes into internal conflict and behaves conformally, becomes a conformist. A person's behavior is called conformal, in which he, deliberately disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on any considerations.

There are three ways a person responds to group pressure. The first is suggestibility, when a person unconsciously accepts the line of behavior, the opinion of the group. The second is conformism, i.e. conscious external agreement with internal disagreement with the opinion of the group. The third way to respond to a group's demand is to consciously agree with the group's opinion, to accept and actively defend its values, norms and ideals.

Communication is a dialogue interaction between people, a basic human need necessary for a person to be included in society (communication with friends, relatives). Communication is a natural human need from birth. In contrast to a monologue, communication is built in the form of improvisation and dialogue. Communication - exchange of different points of view of the interlocutors, their orientation towards understanding and active discussion of the partner's opinion, waiting for an answer, complementarity of the participants' positions. Communication is verbal - using oral speech and non-verbal - using signs-symbols for communication (computer language, the language of the deaf and dumb). Unlike activity, communication is self-valuable as a process. Communication involves the exchange of information, the emergence and maintenance of interpersonal contacts.
Forms of communication: interpersonal, intergroup, intersocial, between the individual and society, between the group and society.

1.8. Interpersonal conflicts, their constructive resolution

Interpersonal conflicts (Latin conffictus - collision) is a clash of opposing interests, views, aspirations, a serious disagreement, a sharp dispute between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. The causes of such conflicts are both social and psychological divisions. They occur due to misunderstanding between people, loss and distortion of information in the process of interaction between people, differences in the methods of assessing each other's activities and personality, psychological incompatibility, etc. Psychological incompatibility is understood as an unsuccessful combination of temperaments and characters of interacting persons, a contradiction in life values, ideals, motives, goals of activity, a mismatch in worldview, ideological attitudes, etc.

The subject of the conflict- a really existing or imagined problem that becomes the cause of the conflict. The object of the conflict is what the conflict is directed at. Allocate material and non-material objects of the conflict.
Conflict phases:
the situation that led to the conflict, and the awareness of the conflict by the participants in the situation (one friend offended the other);
choice of an interaction strategy (the conflicting parties decide to put up or are at enmity with each other);
choice of action strategy (showdown, argue about who is to blame).
Conflict resolution- the decision of the parties to the conflict to reconcile and end the confrontation. The conflict is considered settled if the parties managed to agree (friends made it up). When reconciliation is impossible, it is an unresolved conflict. Conflicts are inevitable in human society. Therefore, an important skill of every person living in society is the ability to seek and find a way out of conflicts.

In conflicts, as a rule, one of the participants assesses the behavior of the other as unacceptable. The reasons for conflicts can also be insufficient psychological stability, an overestimated or underestimated level of claims, a choleric type of temperament, etc.

In adolescents, the causes of conflicts can be heightened self-esteem, maximalism, categorical and unambiguous moral criteria, assessments of facts, events, and their own behavior.

To successfully resolve the conflict, you must:

Adopt the mindset to resolve the conflict to a mutually beneficial agreement.

Correct your behavior in relation to your opponent: try to control your emotions, listen to a different point of view, identify the true goals, needs, needs of your opponent.

Try to find common ground in the position of your own and your opponent.

Preparing and conducting negotiations to resolve a conflict situation. If necessary, invite an intermediary.

There are 2 negotiation models:

The “mutual benefit” model, when they try to find solutions to the problem that fully satisfy the interests of both parties;

The "concessions - rapprochement" model.

It is favorable to organize joint activities at all stages of conflict resolution, to involve a partner in a joint process of searching for possible options for resolving the conflict.

The reference book, addressed to the graduates of the 9th grade of general educational organizations, presents the material of the course "Social Studies" in the volume checked on the main state exam.
The structure of the book corresponds to the modern codifier of content elements in the subject, on the basis of which the control measuring materials of the OGE are compiled.
The content lines of the course are grouped into six blocks-modules: "Man and Society", "Sphere of Spiritual Culture", "Economics", "Social Sphere", "Sphere of Politics and Social Management", "Law".
Completeness, compactness, clarity and clarity of presentation ensure the maximum efficiency of preparation for the exam.
Samples of tasks of different types and all levels of difficulty (basic, advanced and high), answers to them and an indication of the approximate time for their completion will help to objectively assess the level of knowledge and skills.
The book is addressed to high school students, and can also be useful for teachers to organize repetition.

Biological and social in man.
Man is a special link in the development of living organisms on Earth.

Man is essentially a biosocial being: he is a part of nature and at the same time is inextricably linked with society. Biological and social (lat. Socialis - social) in a person are fused together, and only in such a unity does he exist.

The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition for existence, and sociality is the essence of a person.

Free download an e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Social Studies, A complete guide for preparing for the OGE, grade 9, Baranov P.A., 2016 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.

• Social studies, Large collection of thematic tasks to prepare for the main state exam, Baranov P.A., 2018
• OGE 2020, Social studies, grade 9, Demonstration version, Codifier, Specification, Project
• Social studies, Main State Exam, Preparing for the final certification, Rutkovskaya E.L., Polovnikova A.V., Shokhonova E.E., 2020

The following tutorials and books.

"A quick guide to preparing for the OGE in social studies"

Olga Guseva,

teacher of history and social studies of the first category of the educational institution of the city of Omsk

"Secondary school number 104"

Annotation. The article summarizes the work experience of a secondary school teacher in preparing students for the final certification in social studies in grades 9. The main problems and difficult tasks are highlighted, which, according to their own experience, cause difficulties in preparing and passing the OGE for the course of the basic general school in social studies.

Keywords: final certification, OGE, KIM.

Final certification is a form of assessing the degree and level of mastering by students of the educational program. It is carried out on the basis of the principles of objectivity and independence in assessing the quality of training of students. It is mandatory and carried out in the manner and in the form established by the state. In accordance with the law "On Education in the Russian Federation" (Art. 59), the state final certification for educational programs of secondary general education is carried out in the form of the OGE and the Unified State Exam.
.

The national exam (OGE) is a form of compulsory final exams in the 9th grade of a school.

The objectives of the OGE are to assess the quality of general education of graduates of a basic school in social studies and to differentiate examinees according to the degree of readiness to continue their studies in specialized classes of secondary schools or in institutions of primary and secondary vocational education.

When ninth graders are faced with the problem of choosing a subject to pass the exam, most choose social studies. The OGE in social studies is the most popular elective exam after the obligatory OGE in mathematics and Russian. According to statistics from past years, more than 80% of students choose social studies. Most often, graduates explain their choice by the fact that “the subject is not difficult, there is no need to teach formulas, as in physics and chemistry. It is taught once a week. This means that there will be nothing difficult on the exam ”.

Returning to the statistics of past years, mentioned earlier, it should be noted that about 9-10% of those who passed the OGE in social studies, for one reason or another, did not cope with the required minimum of exam tasks. The belief that social studies is the easiest subject is the main mistake of graduates. Most of them are sure that “I know everything about the society in which I live”. The belief that social studies is easy can lead to unexpected consequences for the graduate, so the teacher needs to help the student who chooses this subject to objectively assess their knowledge.

As students begin preparing for the exam, they notice that they are faced with a major problem while reading: understanding the terminology.

For example:

Are the following judgments about deviating behavior?

Which example illustrates interpersonal communication?

Which of the following signs is characteristic of democratic elections?

Without knowing the terms " deviating behavior "," interpersonal communication", " democratic elections ”, it will be difficult to answer the question of KIMA. And often it is necessary not only to know the meaning of the term, but also to have an idea of ​​the characteristics, types, forms that the bottom concept may have.

Knowledge of terminology and the ability to operate with it is the main way to avoid a lot of difficulties in the exam. If terminology can be learned, then the ability to operate it requires logical thinking skills: the ability to compare and analyze.

Learning terminology and practicing logical thinking is 1 way to cope with the named problem.

Not every student, choosing a subject for the exam, understands that social studies is a science that combines the knowledge of a whole list of sciences at once. These are such sciences as economics, political science, law, philosophy. One should not forget about the spiritual sphere of social science: only it includes such parts as culture, science, education, religion, morality, etc. Each science has its own conceptual apparatus: terminology, approaches to assessment and analysis. The student needs to master all the terminology and logic of each of the named sciences. Consequently, completing the task, the student must first of all determine what discipline he is dealing with, and then “turn on” the necessary conceptual apparatus. This is the 2nd rule that you need to adhere to during the preparation and passing of the exam.

For example:

Task - the form of the territorial structure of country Y - a unitary state. It means that…

1) in state Y the principle of democratic elections is implemented;

2) in the regions of state Y, their own governments may exist;

3) state Y has a two-chamber parliament;

4) the regions of state Y do not have independence.

Before proceeding with the assignment, it is necessary to determine with which sphere of social studies we will work in a specific assignment. Then we “turn on” the necessary conceptual apparatus, and only after that, remembering everything we know on a particular topic, we can choose the correct answer.

In the proposed task, the student argues as follows: the sphere of social science, to which the question belongs is political, the topic is "State". What forms of state-territorial structure I know. What do I know about the unitary form of the state-territorial structure. I choose the correct answer.

This chain of thought actions must be followed when performing all tasks of the KIMA OGE in social studies.

The problem of passing the OGE in social studies is aggravated by the fact that the regularity of studies in social studies in secondary school with a basic level of teaching the subject is 1 hour per week, which is 35 hours per academic year. For students aiming for a positive test score and real knowledge, these hours will not be enough. But in any school, without exception, there is an opportunity to attend optional classes, social studies circles, which will be a good help in preparing for the OGE. We should not forget about contests, olympiads of various levels in social studies, which will allow us to replenish the knowledge base on the subject - this is rule 3.

Having voiced the main problems of the OGE in social studies, let us turn our attention to the difficult questions of the first part of the KIMA.

Every year, after holding the OGE in social studies and receiving the exam results at different levels (school, district, region), they analyze the results obtained, identify the most difficult questions that massively caused difficulties for students.

For several years, one of these problematic tasks has been tasks that require determining the correctness of the two proposed judgments. At the same time, this task is further complicated by the fact that in the first 20 tasks there are like five. These include assignment No. 4, No. 6, No. 10, No. 13, No. 16. If a student has not learned how to solve tasks of this type, then on the exam he can lose 5 points at once, which is quite a lot, given that the minimum score for passing the exam is equal to 15 points. It is worth only to the student understand the technology for performing these tasks, and the problems with their solution disappear.

For example:

Are the following judgments about personality correct?

A. Personality is formed in socially useful activities.

B. Personality is characterized by a set of socially significant qualities.

1) only A is true;

2) only B is true;

3) both judgments are correct;

4) both judgments are not true.

We carry out the task according to the algorithm described earlier.

We define the sphere of social science to which the question belongs.

We remember everything that we know about the concept of personality. First of all, we recall the definition of the term personality.

Determine if the first judgment is true. Be sure to make a note on the draft, whether the judgment is correct. It is better to make it out in the form of signs "+", "-". For example, - A +.

Determine if the second judgment is true. Be sure to make a note on the draft about whether the judgment is correct. It is better to draw up this in the form of "+" signs,
"-". For example, B +.

Only after that, having determined that judgment A is correct and judgment B is correct, we choose the answer. Both judgments are correct, the correct answer is 3.

When performing these tasks, it will be correct to check yourself several times.

When analyzing the exam results, it is often noticed that very simple tasks turn out to be performed incorrectly. What is the problem? When clarifying the reasons for the wrong choice, most often it turns out that the student does not finish reading the question to the point. Seeing the correctness of the statement in the first half of the sentence, he often does not even read it further and gives an answer.

For example:

Are the judgments about the principles of electoral law in the Russian Federation correct:

B. One of the conditions for participation in elections is reaching the age of 18 and having a certificate of no criminal record.

1) only A is true;

2) only B is true;

3) both judgments are correct;

4) both judgments are not true.

When analyzing the assignment, we see that the first part of statement A is true. And if the student does not finish reading the assignment to the point, then he mistakenly agrees with the statement. Having read the assignment to the end, the student understands that the ability to have only one vote is not the principle of the secrecy of voting, but the principle of equality of voting. Accordingly, the statement is also incorrect. Writing judgment A on a draft is wrong. Judgment B can also be accepted by students as correct if you do not read the assignment to the end. In this task, judgment B is incorrect, since a certificate of no criminal record is not required to vote. We write it down on a draft, judgment B is wrong. Both judgments are wrong. The correct answer to this task is 4.

The absolute condition for the correct execution of the task is full reading of the text of the assignment.

When preparing for the exam, the student needs to pay attention to the tasks on which topics cause him difficulty and, of course, pay more attention to these topics of the social studies course. At the same time, according to the analysis of works of different levels and, of course, the result of the analysis of the exam, such problematic topics include the following topics:

Economy (taxes, forms of business organizations, inflation, unemployment, budget);

Spiritual sphere (levels of school and vocational education);

Law (characteristics of branches of law);

State (civil society, forms of state and territorial structure: federation, unitary, types of regimes).

At the same time, it is important to remember that one cannot deal only with "theory". After repeating one or another block of topics, be sure to solve practical tasks of different levels on this topic.

Thus, students should understand that preparing for the OGE is hard work, which will give a positive result only if you started preparing for the exam not a month before the day of the exam, but already at the beginning of the school year began active preparation for the test.

The personal interest of teachers and students in successfully passing the exam will contribute to the high quality of the results of the state (final) certification of graduates of grades 9, 11. ...

We come to the conclusion that success will be guaranteed if, when preparing for the OGE, you take into account the recommendations:

Learning terminology and practicing logical thinking is the first step to success on the exam.

- When completing an assignment, a student must first of all determine what discipline he is dealing with, and then “turn on” the necessary conceptual apparatus.

- Attend optional classes, social studies circles, which will be a good help in preparing for the OGE. We should not forget about contests, olympiads of various levels in social studies, which will allow us to replenish our knowledge of the subject.

Working with the tasks of the KIMs of the OGE, you will remember that:

- One of the conditions for the correct execution of the assignment is understanding the technology for performing the assignments and the application of these technologies in practice.

- Do not forget that one of the conditions for success is complete reading of the text of the assignment.

- Don't waste your time. Take up the solution of practical tasks at different levels.

Bibliography

1. Baranov P.A. "OGE. Social Studies. A new complete guide. " - Moscow. AST, 2017 .-- 288 p.

2. Kiba O.V. Teaching the course "social studies" in gymnasium classes: a competence-based approach // Bulletin of the Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University - 2011. - No. 3. - P. 21-41.

3. Kiba O.V., Chernyshenko E.G. Algorithm of the teacher's work in preparing students for the state (final) certification in social studies // Electronic journal Bulletin of the Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University - 2013. - No. 3. - P. 16-21.

4. Kritskaya N.F. Tasks in social studies in the system of preparation for the GIA // Teaching history at school. 2010. - No. 10. - S. 16-20.

5. Lazebnikova A.Yu., Kotova O.A. State final certification in social studies: first results // OKO. Assessment of the quality of education. - 2008. - No. 2. - P. 30.

6. Pozdnyakova N.A. The use of mind maps in the system of preparation for the final certification of schoolchildren in social studies // International scientific journal "Symbol of Science". - 2015. - No. 8. - S. 250-254.

7. Federal Law "On Education in the Russian Federation". - Novosibirsk: Normatika, 2014 .-- 128 p.

The main state exam in social studies is one of the optional tests that students can take at the end of grade 9. This subject is chosen by those students who decide to continue their studies in grade 10 with a humanitarian bias or decide to enter secondary specialized educational institutions for humanitarian specialties.

Also, the OGE can be the first stage of preparation for passing the unified state exam in this subject at the end of full education at school.

Peculiarities

All items of the exam will be completed within 3 hours. In order for it to be read as completed, it is necessary to score at least 15 points - this corresponds to the "satisfactory" grade. 25 - 33 points is a range for a solid four. The maximum amount that can be earned is 39 (from 34 "excellent"). There are no permitted visual materials and aids for this type of OGE, only a form with texts and a pen can be located on the examinee's table.

The structure of the main state examination provides for the implementation of tasks of two types - there are 31 of them.

The first part includes 25 tests (numbers 1-25), which require a short answer. Here you will find options in which you need to choose the only correct option from the proposed ones, correlate the terms and their definitions, indicate the correct sequence of actions, and so on.

The second part is 6 tasks for which you need to give a full detailed answer. These are questions numbered 26 through 31. For example, an informational text is given that must be read carefully and then answered a number of questions.

Algorithm of preparation

• Repeat all sections of the school curriculum - for this you can use textbooks, teaching aids or your own notes;
• Explore various demonstration materials and additional literature - they can be found in specialized stores or on the Internet;
• Use the OGE online tests - they can be found on thematic sites, including ours. They will help to consolidate what has been learned and simulate a work format that is as close as possible to a real exam. This will help you master the sequence of all actions and give confidence during the test itself.

How are the results evaluated?

From 1 to 21 numbers are estimated at 1 point, the same number in questions 23-25. For number 22 get 2 - if everything is correct, 1 - if there is one error, 0 - if there are two or more. The result of the second part depends on the correctness and completeness of the answers. Questions 26-28, 30 and 31 bring maximum 2, with incomplete disclosure of the topic - 1. №29, if performed well, will add 3 points.