The light emitted by a star, when viewed globally, is an electromagnetic wave. When viewed locally, this radiation consists of quanta of light - photons, which are carriers of energy in space. We now know that the emitted quantum of light excites the nearest elementary particle of space, which transfers the excitation to the neighboring particle. Based on the law of conservation of energy, in this case the speed of light should be limited. This shows the difference in the propagation of light and information, which (information) was considered in Section 3.4. Such an idea of ​​light, space and the nature of interactions led to a change in the idea of ​​\ u200b \ u200bthe universe. Therefore, the concept of redshift as an increase in wavelengths in the source spectrum (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of reference spectra should be revised and the nature of this effect should be established (see Introduction, p. 7 and).

The redshift is due to two reasons. First, it is known that the redshift due to the Doppler effect occurs when the movement of the light source relative to the observer leads to an increase in the distance between them.

Secondly, from the point of view of fractal physics, the redshift occurs when the emitter is placed in the region of a large electric field of the star. Then, in the new interpretation of this effect, light quanta - photons - will generate at birth several

a different frequency of oscillations in comparison with the terrestrial standard, in which the electric field is insignificant. This influence of the star's electric field on radiation leads to both a decrease in the energy of the emerging quantum and a decrease in the frequency characterizing the quantum; accordingly, the radiation wavelength = C / (C is the speed of light, approximately equal to 3 10 8 m / s). Since the electric field of the star also determines the gravity of the star, we will call the effect of increasing the radiation wavelength by the old term "gravitational redshift".

An example of gravitational redshift is the observed line shift in the spectra of the Sun and white dwarfs. It is the gravitational redshift effect that is now reliably established for white dwarfs and for the Sun. The gravitational redshift, equivalent to the speed, for white dwarfs is 30 km / s, and for the Sun - about 250 m / s. The difference in redshifts of the Sun and white dwarfs by two orders of magnitude is due to the different electric fields of these physical objects. Let's consider this issue in more detail.

As mentioned above, a photon emitted in the electric field of a star will have a changed oscillation frequency. To derive the redshift formula, we use the relation (3.7) for the photon mass: m ν = h / C 2 = E / C 2, where E is the photon energy proportional to its frequency ν. From here we see that the relative changes in the mass and frequency of the photon are equal, so we represent them in this form: m ν / m ν = / = E / C 2.

The change in the energy AE of the emerging photon is caused by the electric potential of the star. The electrical potential of the Earth, due to its smallness, is not taken into account in this case. Then the relative redshift of a photon emitted by a star with electric potential φ and radius R, in the SI system is equal to.

RED SHIFT, an increase in wavelength (decrease in frequency) of electromagnetic radiation from a source, which manifests itself in a shift of spectral lines or other details of the spectrum towards the red (long-wave) end of the spectrum. The redshift is usually estimated by measuring the displacement of the position of the lines in the spectrum of the observed object relative to the spectral lines of the reference source with known wavelengths. Quantitatively, the redshift is measured by the magnitude of the relative increase in wavelengths:

Z = (λ prin -λ isp) / λ isp,

where λ pr and λ isp - respectively, the length of the received wave and the wave emitted by the source.

There are two possible reasons for the redshift. It can be due to the Doppler effect, when the observed source of radiation is removed. If, in this case, z «1, then the removal rate ν = cz, where c is the speed of light. If the distance to the source decreases, a shift of the opposite sign is observed (the so-called violet shift). For objects in our Galaxy, both reds and violet shifts do not exceed z = 10 -3. In the case of high speeds of motion, comparable to the speed of light, the redshift arises due to relativistic effects even if the speed of the source is directed across the line of sight (transverse Doppler effect).

A special case of the Doppler redshift is the cosmological redshift observed in the spectra of galaxies. The cosmological redshift was first discovered by W. Slipher in 1912-14. It arises as a result of an increase in the distances between galaxies, due to the expansion of the Universe, and, on average, linearly increases with an increase in the distance to the galaxy (Hubble's law). At not too large values ​​of the redshift (z< 1) закон Хаббла обычно используется для оценки расстояний до внегалактических объектов. Наиболее далёкие наблюдаемые объекты (галактики, квазары) имеют красные смещения, существенно превышающие z = 1. Известно несколько объектов с z >6. At these z values, radiation emitted by a source in the visible region of the spectrum is received in the infrared region. Due to the finiteness of the speed of light, objects with large cosmological redshifts are observed as they were billions of years ago, in the era of their youth.

Gravitational redshift occurs when the light receiver is in an area with a lower gravitational potential φ than the source. In the classical interpretation of this effect, photons lose some of their energy to overcome the forces of gravity. As a result, the frequency that characterizes the photon energy decreases, and the wavelength increases accordingly. For weak gravitational fields, the value of the gravitational redshift is equal to z g = Δφ / s 2, where Δφ is the difference between the gravitational potentials of the source and the receiver. Hence it follows that for spherically symmetric bodies z g = GM / Rc 2, where M and R are the mass and radius of the radiating body, G is the gravitational constant. A more exact (relativistic) formula for non-rotating spherical bodies is:

z g = (1 -2GM / Rc 2) -1/2 - 1.

Gravitational redshift is observed in the spectra of dense stars (white dwarfs); for them z g ≤10 -3. Gravitational redshift was discovered in the spectrum of the white dwarf Sirius B in 1925 (W. Adams, USA). The strongest gravitational redshift should be observed in the radiation from the inner regions of accretion disks around black holes.

An important property of any type of redshift (Doppler, cosmological, gravitational) is the absence of a dependence of the z value on the wavelength. This conclusion is confirmed experimentally: for the same radiation source, spectral lines in the optical, radio and X-ray ranges have the same redshift.

Lit .: Zasov A.V., Postnov K.A. General astrophysics. Fryazino, 2006.

rev. from 11.12.2013 - ()

The theory of the big bang and the expansion of the universe is a fact for modern scientific thought, but if you face it, it never became a real theory. This hypothesis appeared when, in 1913, the American astronomer Vesto Melvin Slipher began studying the spectra of light coming from a dozen known nebulae, and concluded that they move from Earth at speeds reaching millions of miles per hour. Astronomer de Sitter shared similar ideas at the time. At one time, de Sitter's scientific report aroused interest among astronomers around the world.

Among these scientists was also Edwin Habble. He also attended a conference of the American Astronomical Society in 1914, when Slifer reported on his discoveries related to the motion of galaxies. Inspired by this idea, Hubble began work at the famous Mt. Wilson Observatory in 1928 in an attempt to combine de Sitter's theory of an expanding universe with Sdifer's observations of receding galaxies.

Hubble reasoned roughly as follows. In an expanding universe, we should expect galaxies to move away from each other, with more distant galaxies moving away from each other faster. This means that from any point, including the Earth, the observer should see that all other galaxies are moving away from him, and, on average, more distant galaxies are moving away faster.

Hubble believed that, if this is true and actually takes place, then there must be a proportional relationship between the distance to the galaxy and the degree of redshift in the spectrum of light coming from galaxies to our Earth. He observed that in the spectra of most galaxies this redshift does indeed take place, and galaxies located at greater distances from us have a greater redshift.

At one time, Slifer noticed that in the spectra of the galaxies that he studied, the spectral lines of light of certain planets are shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. This curious phenomenon was called "redshift". Slipher boldly explained the redshift by the Doppler effect, which was well known at the time. Based on the increase in "redshift", we can conclude that galaxies are moving away from us. This was the first big step towards the idea that the entire universe is expanding. If the lines in the spectrum were displaced towards the blue end of the spectrum, then this would mean that the galaxies are moving towards the observer, that is, that the universe is shrinking.

The question arises, how could Hubble find out how far away from us each of the galaxies he studied, he did not measure the distance to them with a tape measure? But it was on data on the remoteness of galaxies that he based his observations and conclusions... This was indeed a very difficult question for Hubble, and it still remains a difficult question for modern astronomers. After all, there is no measuring device that can reach the stars.

Therefore, in his measurements, he adhered to the following logic: for a start, you can estimate the distance to the nearest stars using various methods; then, step by step, you can build a "ladder of cosmic distances", which will allow you to estimate the distance to some galaxies.

Hubble, using his method of approximating distances, deduced a proportional relationship between the redshift and the distance to the galaxy. This relationship is now known as Hubble's law.

He believed that the most distant galaxies have the highest redshift values ​​and therefore move away from us faster than other galaxies. He took this as sufficient evidence that the universe is expanding.

Over time, this idea became so established that astronomers began to apply it just the opposite: if the distance is proportional to the redshift, then the measured redshift can be used to calculate the distance to galaxies. But as we have already noted, Hubble determined distances to galaxies by not measuring them directly... They were obtained indirectly, based on measurements of the apparent brightness of galaxies. Agree, his assumption about the proportional relationship between the distance to the galaxy and the redshift is impossible to verify.

Thus, the model of an expanding universe potentially has two flaws:

- At first, the brightness of celestial objects can depend on many factors, not only on their distance. That is, distances calculated from the apparent brightness of galaxies may not be valid.

- Secondly, it is quite possible that the redshift has nothing to do with the speed of the galaxies at all.

Hubble continued his research and came to a certain model of the expanding Universe, which resulted in Hubble's law.

To explain it, let us first recall that, according to the big bang model, the farther a galaxy is from the epicenter of the explosion, the faster it moves. According to Hubble's law, the speed of removal of galaxies should be equal to the distance to the epicenter of the explosion, multiplied by a number called the Hubble constant. Using this law, astronomers calculate the distance to galaxies based on the magnitude of the redshift, the origin of which is not fully understood by anyone.

In general, they decided to measure the Universe very simply; Find the redshift and divide by the Hubble constant, and you get the distance to any galaxy. In the same way, modern astronomers use the Hubble constant to calculate the size of the universe. The reciprocal of the Hubble constant has the meaning of the characteristic expansion time of the Universe at the current moment. This is where the legs of the time of the existence of the Universe grow from.

Based on this, the Hubble constant is an extremely important number for modern science. For example, if you double the constant, then you also double the estimated size of the universe... But the fact is that in different years, different scientists operated with different values ​​of the Hubble constant.

The Hubble constant is expressed in kilometers per second per megaparsec (a unit of cosmic distance equal to 3.3 million light years).

For example, in 1929 the value of the Hubble constant was equal to 500. In 1931 it was equal to 550. In 1936 - 520 or 526. In 1950 - 260, i.e. dropped significantly. In 1956, it dropped even more: to 176 or 180. In 1958, it dropped further to 75, and in 1968 jumped to 98. In 1972, its value ranged from 50 to 130. Today, the Hubble constant is considered to be 55. All these changes allowed one astronomer to humorously say that the Hubble constant would be better called the Hubble variable, which is now accepted. In other words, it is believed that the Hubble constant changes with time, but the term "constant" is justified by the fact that at any given moment in time at all points in the Universe the Hubble constant is the same.

Of course, all these changes over the decades can be explained by the fact that scientists have improved their methods and improved the quality of calculations.

But the question arises: What kind of calculations? We repeat once again that no one can really check these calculations, since a roulette (even a laser) that could reach the neighboring galaxy has not yet been invented.

Moreover, even in the ratio of distances between galaxies, sane people do not understand everything. If the Universe expands, according to the law of proportionality, uniformly, why then do many scientists get such different values ​​of quantities, based on the same proportions of the rates of this expansion? It turns out that these proportions of expansion as such also do not exist.

Scientist astronomer Wiger noticed that, when astronomers measure in different directions, they get different expansion rates... Then he noticed something even stranger: he discovered that the sky can be divided into two sets of directions... The first is a set of directions in which many galaxies lie in front of more distant galaxies. The second is the set of directions in which distant galaxies are without foreground galaxies. Let's call the first group of directions of space "region A", the second group - "region B".

Wiger discovered an amazing thing. If in our studies we restrict ourselves to distant galaxies in region A and only on the basis of these studies calculate the Hubble constant, then we get one constant value. If you do research in area B, you get a completely different value of the constant.

It turns out that the rate of expansion of the galaxy, according to these studies, varies depending on how and under what conditions we measure the indicators coming from distant galaxies. If we measure them where there are foreground galaxies, then there will be one result, if there is no foreground, then the result will be different.

If the universe is really expanding, then what could cause foreground galaxies to affect the speed of other galaxies so much? The galaxies are at a huge distance from each other, they cannot blow at each other, as we blow on a balloon. Therefore, it would be logical to assume that the problem lies in the mysteries of the redshift.

This is exactly what Wieger reasoned. He suggested that the measured redshifts of distant galaxies, on which all science is based, are not at all related to the expansion of the Universe. Rather, they are caused by a completely different effect. He suggested that this previously unknown effect is associated with the so-called aging mechanism of light approaching us from afar.

According to Wieger, the spectrum of light that has passed through a huge space undergoes a strong redshift just because the light travels too far. Wiger proved that this happens in accordance with physical laws and is surprisingly similar to many other natural phenomena. In nature, always, if something moves, then there is necessarily something else that impedes this movement. Such obstructing forces also exist in outer space. Wieger believes that as light travels vast distances between galaxies, the redshift effect begins to appear. He associated this effect with the hypothesis of aging (decrease in the intensity) of light.

It turns out that the light loses its energy, crossing the space, in which there are certain forces that interfere with its movement. And the more the light ages, the redder it gets. Therefore, the redshift is proportional to the distance, not the speed of the object. So the further the light travels, the more it gets older. Realizing this, Wieger described the universe as a nonexpanding structure. He realized that all galaxies are more or less stationary. And the redshift is not related to the Doppler effect, and therefore the distances to the measured object and its speed are not related. Wieger believes that the redshift is determined by an intrinsic property of the light itself; thus, he argues that light, having traveled a certain distance, simply becomes older. This does not in any way prove that the galaxy to which the distance is measured is moving away from us.

Most (but not all) modern astronomers reject the idea of ​​light aging. According to Joseph Silk of The University of California at Berkley, "The cosmology of aging light is unsatisfactory because it introduces a new law of physics."

But the theory of light aging presented by Wiger does not require radical additions to the existing physical laws. He suggested that in intergalactic space there is a certain kind of particles that, interacting with light, take away part of the light energy. The vast majority of massive objects have more of these particles than others.

Using this idea, Wieger explained the different redshifts for regions A and B as follows: light passing through the foreground galaxies encounters more of these particles and therefore loses more energy than light that does not pass through the foreground galaxies. Thus, a greater redshift will be observed in the spectrum of light crossing obstacles (regions of foreground galaxies), and this leads to different values ​​for the Hubble constant. Wieger also referred to additional evidence of his theories, which was obtained in experiments on objects with slow redshifts.

For example, if you measure the spectrum of light emanating from a star located close to the disk of our Sun, then the magnitude of the redshift in it will be greater than in the case of a star located in the far region of the sky. Such measurements can only be taken during a total solar eclipse, when stars close to the solar disk become visible in the dark.

In short, Wieger explained redshifts in terms of a non-expanding universe, in which the behavior of light differs from that accepted by most scientists. Wieger believes that his model of the universe provides more accurate, realistic astronomical data than the standard model of an expanding universe. This old model cannot explain much of the difference in the Hubble constant. According to Wieger, slow redshifts may be a global feature of the Universe. The universe may well be static, and hence the need for a big bang theory simply disappears.

And everything would be fine: we would have said thanks to Wiger, chided Hubble, but a new problem, unknown before, appeared. This problem is quasars. One of the most striking features of quasars is that their redshifts are fantastically high compared to those of other astronomical objects. While the redshift measured for a normal galaxy is about 0.67, some of the quasar redshifts are close to 4.00. At present, galaxies have been found with a redshift coefficient greater than 1.00.

If we accept, like most astronomers, that they are ordinary redshifts, then quasars must be by far the most distant objects ever found in the universe and emitting a million times more energy than a giant spherical galaxy, which is also hopeless.

If we take Hubble's law, then galaxies (with redshifts greater than 1.00) should move away from us at a speed exceeding the speed of light, and quasars at a speed equal to 4 times the speed of light.

It turns out that now it is necessary to scold Albert Einstein? Or is it that the initial conditions of the problem are incorrect and the redshift is the mathematical equivalent of processes about which we have little idea? Mathematics is not wrong, but it does not provide an actual understanding of the processes taking place. For example, mathematicians have long proved the existence of additional dimensions of space, while modern science cannot find them in any way.

Thus, both of the alternatives available within conventional astronomical theory face serious difficulties. If redshift is taken as the usual Doppler effect, due to spatial absorption, the indicated distances are so huge that other properties of quasars, especially energy emission, are inexplicable. On the other hand, if the redshift is not related, or not completely related to the speed of movement, we have no reliable hypothesis as to the mechanism by which it is generated.

Convincing evidence based on this problem is difficult to obtain. Arguments on one side or questions on the other are based mainly on the obvious association between quasars and other objects. Obvious associations with such redshifts are offered as evidence in support of simple Doppler shifts, or as "cosmological" hypotheses. Opponents argue that associations between objects with different redshifts indicate that two different processes are at work. Each group labels the opponents' associations as bogus.

In any case, in relation to this situation, we must agree that the second component (velocity) of the redshift is identified as another Doppler change, produced in the same manner as the normal absorption redshift, and must be added to the normal displacement, giving a mathematical reflection ongoing processes.

And the factual understanding of the ongoing processes can be found in the works of Dewey Larson, for example, in this passage.

Quasar redshifts

Although some objects now known as quasars were already recognized as belonging to a new and separate class of phenomena due to their special spectra, the real discovery of quasars can be attributed to 1963, when Martin Schmidt determined the spectrum of the radio source 3C 273 as shifted by 16% towards red ... Most of the other defining characteristics originally attributed to quasars had to be determined when more data was accumulated. For example, one early description defined them as "star-like objects that coincide with radio sources." But modern observations show that in most cases quasars have complex structures, definitely not like stars, and there is a large class of quasars, radio emission from which has not been detected. The high redshift continued to be a sign of the quasar, and the observed range of magnitudes expanding upward was considered its distinctive characteristic. The secondary redshift measured at 3C 48 was 0.369, well above the primary measurement of 0.158. By early 1967, when 100 redshifts were available, the highest was 2.223, and by the time of publication it had climbed to 3.78.

The widening of the redshift range above 1.00 raised the question of interpretation. Based on previous understanding of the origin of the Doppler shift, a recession redshift above 1.00 would indicate that the relative speed is greater than the speed of light. The general acceptance of Einstein's point of view that the speed of light is the absolute limit made such an interpretation unacceptable to astronomers, and the mathematics of relativity was resorted to to solve the problem. Our analysis in Volume I shows that this is a misapplication of mathematical relations in situations in which these relations can be used. There are contradictions between the values ​​obtained as a result of observation and obtained by indirect means. For example, by measuring the speed by dividing the coordinate distance by the hour's time. In such examples, the mathematics of relativity (Lorentz's equations) are applied to indirect measurements in order to bring them into agreement with the direct measurements taken as correct. Doppler shifts are direct measurements of velocities that do not require correction. A redshift of 2.00 indicates relative outward motion with a scalar value twice the speed of light.

While traditional astronomical thought was able to circumvent the high redshift problem through a trick with the mathematics of relativity, the accompanying distance-energy problem was more rebellious and resisted any resolution or trick.

If quasars are located at distances indicated by cosmology, that is, at distances corresponding to redshifts, according to the fact that they are ordinary redshifts of a recession, then the amount of energy they emit is much greater than can be explained by the known process of energy generation, or even any specious speculative process. On the other hand, if energies are lowered to credible levels by assuming that quasars are much closer, then mainstream science has no explanation for large redshifts.

Obviously, something needs to be done. One or the other limiting assumption should be abandoned. Either there are previously undiscovered processes that produce much more energy than the already known processes, or there are unknown factors that push the redshifts of the quasar beyond the usual recession values. For some reason, the rationality of which is difficult to understand, most astronomers believe that the alternative to redshift is the only one that requires revision or expansion in existing physical theory. The argument most often raised against the objections of those who lean in favor of a non-cosmological explanation of redshifts is this: the hypothesis required to be measured in physical theory should only be accepted as a last resort. What these individuals fail to see is that the last resort is the only thing that remains. If we exclude the modification of the existing theory to explain the redshifts, then the existing theory should be modified to explain the magnitude of energy generation.

Moreover, the energy alternative is much more radical in that it not only requires completely unknown new processes, but also involves a huge increase in the scale of generation, beyond the currently known level. On the other hand, all that is required in a redshift situation, even if no solution based on known processes can be obtained, is a new process. It does not claim to explain anything more than is now recognized as the prerogative of the well-known recessionary process; it is simply used to generate redshifts at less distant spatial locations. Even without new information from the development of a theory of the universe of motion, it should be clear that an alternative to redshift is a much better way to break the existing deadlock between quasar energy and redshift theories. That is why the explanation that emerged as a result of the application of the Reverse System theory to solve the problem is so significant.

Such inferences are somewhat academic, since we accept the world as it is, whether we like it or not what we find. However, it should be noted that here, again, as in many examples on the previous pages, the answer that appears as a result of the new theoretical development takes the simplest and most logical form. Of course, the answer to the quasar problem does not involve a break with most fundamentals, as astronomers would expect, leaning towards a non-cosmological explanation for redshifts. As they view the situation, some new physical process or principle should be included in order to add a “non-velocity component” to the recession of the redshift of quasars. We find that no new process or principle is required. The extra redshift is simply the result of added speed, speed that has escaped awareness due to the inability to be represented in the traditional spatial frame of reference.

As stated above, the limiting value for the explosion velocity and redshift are two resulting units in one dimension. If the explosion velocity is equally divided between the two active dimensions in the intermediate region, the quasar can transform into motion in time if the explosion component of the redshift in the original dimension is 2.00, and the total redshift of the quasar is 2.326. By the time the book "Quasars and Pulsars" was published, only one quasar redshift had been published, exceeding the value of 2.326 by any significant amount. As indicated in that work, the redshift of 2.326 is not an absolute maximum, but the level at which the transition of the quasar movement to a new status occurs, which, as is allowed in any event, can take place. Thus, the very high value of 2.877, ascribed to the quasar 4C 05 34, indicated either the existence of some process as a result of which the transformation, which could theoretically occur at 2.326, was delayed, or a measurement error. In the absence of other available data, the choice between the two alternatives seemed undesirable at the time. In subsequent years, many additional redshifts were found above 2.326; and it became obvious that the expansion of the redshifts of quasars to higher levels is a frequent phenomenon. Therefore, the theoretical situation was revised and the nature of the process, which worked at higher redshifts, was clarified.

As described in Volume 3, the redshift factor of 3.5, which prevails below the level of 2.326, is the result of an equal distribution of seven units of equivalent space between the dimension parallel to the dimension of motion in space and the dimension perpendicular to it. Such an equal distribution is the result of the action of probability in the absence of influences in favor of one distribution over another, and other distributions are completely excluded. However, there is a small but significant probability of unequal distribution. Instead of the usual distribution of 3½ - 3½ seven speed units, the division could become 4 - 3, 4½ - 2½, and so on. The total number of quasars with redshifts above the level corresponding to the 3½ - 3½ distribution is relatively small. And it was not expected that any random group of moderate size, say, 100 quasars, contains more than one such quasar (if it does).

The skewed distribution in the dimension has no significant observable effects on the levels of the lower velocities (although it would create anomalous results in a study such as Arp pool analysis if it were more common). But it becomes evident at higher levels, as it results in redshifts exceeding the usual limit of 2.326. Due to the second degree (square) of the nature of interregional communication, 8 units involved in the explosion rate, 7 of which reside in the intermediate region, become 64 units, 56 of which reside in this region. Therefore, possible redshift coefficients above 3.5 are increased in steps of 0.125. The theoretical maximum corresponding to a distribution in only one dimension would be 7.0, but the probability becomes insignificant at some lower level, apparently somewhere near 6.0. The corresponding redshift values ​​reach a maximum of about 4.0.

An increase in redshift due to a change in distribution in a dimension does not include any increase in distance in space. Consequently, all quasars with redshifts of 2.326 and higher are at approximately the same distance in space. This is the explanation for the apparent discrepancy included in the observed fact that the brightness of quasars with extremely high redshifts is comparable to the brightness of quasars with a redshift range of about 2.00.

Star explosions, setting off a chain of events leading to the emission of a quasar from the origin galaxy, reduce most of the exploding star matter to kinetic and radial energy. The remainder of the stellar mass is shattered into gas and dust particles. Some of the scattered material penetrates the galactic sectors surrounding the explosion region, and when one such sector is ejected as a quasar, it contains rapidly moving gas and dust. Due to the fact that the maximum particle speeds are higher than the speeds required to escape from the gravitational attraction of individual stars, this material gradually makes its way out and over time takes the form of a cloud of dust and gas around the quasar - the atmosphere, as we can call it. Radiation from the stars that make up the quasar passes through the atmosphere, increasing the absorption of lines in the spectrum. The scattered material surrounding a relatively young quasar moves with the main body, and the absorption of the redshift is approximately equal to the amount of radiation.

As the quasar moves outward, its constituent stars get older, and in the last stages of their existence, some of them reach acceptable limits. Then such stars explode in the already described Type II supernovae. As we have seen, explosions throw one cloud of products outward into space, and a second similar cloud outward during (equivalent to ejection inward into space). When the velocity of the explosion products emitted during time is superimposed on the velocity of the quasar, which is already near the boundary of the sector, the products move into the space sector and disappear.

The outward movement of the explosion products thrown into space is equivalent to the inward movement in time. Therefore, it is opposite to the movement of the quasar outward in time. If the inward movement could be observed independently, it would create a blue shift, since it would be directed towards us and not away from us. But since such a movement occurs only in combination with the outward movement of the quasar, its influence is aimed at reducing the resulting outward speed and the redshift value. Thus, slowly moving products of secondary explosions move outward in the same way as the quasar itself, and the components of the inverse velocity simply delay their arrival at the point where the transformation into motion in time takes place.

Consequently, a quasar at one of the last stages of its existence is surrounded not only by the atmosphere moving with the quasar itself, but also by one or more clouds of particles moving away from the quasar in time (equivalent space). Each cloud of particles contributes to the absorption of redshift, which differs from the emission value by the value of the inward velocity imparted to the particles by internal explosions. As indicated in the discussion of the nature of scalar motion, any object moving in this way can also acquire vector motion. The vector velocities of the quasar components are small compared to their scalar velocities, but they can be large enough to create some measurable deviations from scalar quantities. In some cases, this leads to absorption of the redshift above the emission level. Due to the outward direction of the velocities resulting from secondary explosions, all other absorption of redshifts other than the emission values ​​are below the emission redshifts.

The velocities imparted to the emitted particles do not have a significant effect on the z of the recession, as does an increase in the effective velocity beyond the level of 2.326; therefore, the change takes place in the redshift ratio and is limited to 0.125 steps - the minimum change in this ratio. Therefore, the possible absorption of redshifts occurs by means of regular values ​​differing from each other by 0.125z ½. Due to the fact that the z value of quasars reaches a maximum at 0.326, and the entire variability of redshifts above 2.326 arises due to changes in the redshift coefficient, the theoretical values ​​of the possible absorption of the redshift are identical for all quasars and coincide with the possible values ​​of the redshifts of emission.

Since most of the observed high redshift quasars are relatively old, their constituents are in a state of extreme activity. This vector motion introduces some uncertainty into emission redshift measurements and makes it impossible to demonstrate an accurate correlation between theory and observation. In the case of absorption of redshifts, the situation is more favorable, since the measured absorption values ​​for each of the more active quasars form a series, and the relationship between the series can be demonstrated even when the individual quantities have a significant degree of uncertainty.

As a result of the explosion, the redshift is a product of the redshift coefficient and z ½, and each quasar with a recession rate z less than 0.326 has its own set of possible redshift absorption, and the consecutive members of each series differ by 0.125z 2. One of the largest systems in this range, studied so far, is the quasar 0237-233.

It usually takes a long period of time to bring a significant number of quasar stars to the age limit that triggers explosive activity. Accordingly, absorption of redshifts other than emission values ​​does not appear until the quasar reaches a redshift range above 1.75. However, it is clear from the nature of the process that there are exceptions to this general rule. The outer newly enlarged parts of the galaxy of origin are mainly composed of younger stars, but special conditions during the galaxy's growth, such as a relatively recent conjunction with another large population, may inject a concentration of older stars into the ejected part of the galaxy's structure. ... Older stars then reach their age limits, and initiate a chain of events that create a redshift extinction earlier than usual during the quasar's life stage. However, the number of old stars included in any newly emitted quasar does not appear to be large enough to generate internal activity leading to an intense redshift absorption system.

In the higher redshift range, a new factor enters the situation; it accelerates the tendency towards greater absorption of redshifts. In order to introduce velocity increments into the dust and gaseous components of a quasar, which are necessary for starting the absorption system, a significant intensity of explosive activity is usually required. However, there is no such limitation beyond two units of the explosion speed. Here, the diffuse components are influenced by the conditions of the space sector, which tend to decrease the inverse velocity (equivalent to an increase in velocity), creating additional absorption of redshifts during the normal evolution of the quasar, without the need for further energy generation in the quasar. Therefore, above this level, “all quasars exhibit strong absorption lines”. Streetmatter and Williams, from whose message the above statement is taken, go on to say:

"It looks like there is a threshold for the presence of absorbed material in the emission of redshifts around 2.2."

This empirical finding is consistent with our theoretical discovery that there is a definite sector boundary at redshift of 2.326.

In addition to redshift absorption in optical spectra, to which the above discussion pertains, redshift absorption is also found at radio frequencies. The first such discovery in emission from the quasar 3C 286 has attracted considerable interest due to the rather widespread impression that an explanation other than that of absorption of optical frequencies is required to explain the absorption of radio frequencies. The first researchers came to the conclusion that the redshift of radio frequencies occurs due to the absorption of neutral hydrogen in some galaxies located between us and the quasar. Since in this case the absorption of the redshift is about 80%, they considered the observations as evidence in favor of the cosmological hypothesis of redshift. Based on the theory of the universe of motion, radio observations do not introduce anything new. The absorption process that works in quasars is applicable to radiation of all frequencies. And the presence of redshift absorption at a radio frequency has the same significance as the presence of redshift absorption at an optical frequency. The measured radiofrequency redshifts for the 3C 286 for emission and absorption are of the order of 0.85 and 0.69, respectively. With a redshift ratio of 2.75, the theoretical redshift absorbance corresponding to an emission value of 0.85 is 0.68.

Redshift

lowering the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, one of the manifestations of the Doppler effect a . The name "K. with." due to the fact that in the visible part of the spectrum, as a result of this phenomenon, the lines turn out to be shifted to its red end; K. s. it is also observed in radiation of any other frequencies, for example, in the radio range. The opposite effect of boosting frequencies is called blue (or violet) shift. Most often, the term "K. with." is used to designate two phenomena - cosmological K. with. and gravitational K. with.

Cosmological (metagalactic) K. with. is called the observed for all distant sources (galaxies (see Galaxies), quasars (see Quasars)) decrease in radiation frequencies, which indicates the distance of these sources from each other and, in particular, from our Galaxy, i.e., about nonstationarity (expansion ) Metagalaxy. K. s. for galaxies was discovered by the American astronomer W. Slipher in 1912-14; in 1929 E. Hubble discovered that K. s. for distant galaxies more than for close ones, and increases approximately in proportion to the distance (the law of cosmic rays, or Hubble's law). Various explanations for the observed shift of the spectral lines have been proposed. Such, for example, is the hypothesis about the decay of light quanta in a time of millions and billions of years, during which the light of distant sources reaches the terrestrial observer; according to this hypothesis, the energy decreases during decay, which is associated with the change in the radiation frequency. However, this hypothesis is not supported by observations. In particular, K. s. in different parts of the spectrum of the same source, within the framework of the hypothesis, should be different. Meanwhile, all observation data indicate that K. with. independent of frequency, relative change in frequency z = (ν 0 - ν) / ν 0 is exactly the same for all radiation frequencies, not only in the optical, but also in the radio range of a given source ( ν 0 - the frequency of a certain line of the spectrum of the source, ν - the frequency of the same line recorded by the receiver; ν). Such a change in frequency is a characteristic property of the Doppler shift and, in fact, excludes all other interpretations of K. with.

In the theory of relativity (see Relativity theory) Doppler K. s. is considered as a result of slowing down the flow of time in a moving frame of reference (the effect of the special theory of relativity). If the speed of the source system relative to the receiver system is υ (in the case of metagalactic K. with. υ - this is the Radial Velocity) , then

(c- the speed of light in vacuum) and according to the observed K. with. it is easy to determine the radial velocity of the source: v approaches the speed of light, always remaining less than it (v v, much less than the speed of light ( υ) , the formula is simplified: υ ≈cz. Hubble's law in this case is written in the form υ = cz = Hr (r- distance, H - Hubble constant). To determine the distances to extragalactic objects using this formula, you need to know the numerical value of the Hubble constant N. Knowledge of this constant is very important for cosmology (See Cosmology) : with it is associated with the so-called. the age of the universe.

Until the 50s. 20th century extragalactic distances (the measurement of which is naturally associated with great difficulties) were greatly underestimated, and therefore the value H, determined by these distances, it turned out to be greatly overestimated. In the early 70s. 20th century for the Hubble constant, the value H = 53 ± 5 ( km / sec)/ Mgps, reciprocal T = 1 / H = 18 billion years.

Photographing the spectra of weak (distant) sources for measuring the cosmic signal, even when using the largest instruments and sensitive photographic plates, requires favorable observation conditions and long exposures. For galaxies, displacements are measured reliably z≈ 0.2, corresponding to the speed υ ≈ 60 000 km / sec and a distance of over 1 billion. ps. At such speeds and distances, the Hubble law is applicable in its simplest form (the error is of the order of 10%, i.e., the same as the error in determining N). Quasars are, on average, a hundred times brighter than galaxies and, therefore, can be observed at distances ten times greater (if space is Euclidean). For quasars, it is true that z≈ 2 and more. With displacements z = 2 speed υ ≈ 0,8․c = 240 000 km / sec. At such speeds, specific cosmological effects are already manifesting themselves - nonstationarity and curvature of space-time (See Curvature of space-time); in particular, the notion of a single unambiguous distance becomes inapplicable (one of the distances - the distance along the space distance - here, obviously, r = υlH = 4.5 billion ps). K. s. testifies to the expansion of the entire part of the Universe accessible to observation; this phenomenon is commonly referred to as the expansion of the (astronomical) universe.

Gravitational K. with. is a consequence of the slowing down of the rate of time and is due to the gravitational field (the effect of general relativity). This phenomenon (also called the Einstein effect, the generalized Doppler effect) was predicted by A. Einstein in 1911, it was observed beginning in 1919, first in the radiation of the Sun, and then in some other stars. Gravitational K. with. it is customary to characterize the conditional speed υ, calculated formally using the same formulas as in the cases of cosmological cosmic rays. Conditional speed values: for the Sun υ = 0,6 km / sec, for the dense star Sirius B υ = 20 km / sec. In 1959, for the first time, it was possible to measure the K. s., Due to the gravitational field of the Earth, which is very small: υ = 7,5․10 -5 cm / sec(see Mössbauer effect). In some cases (for example, in the case of a gravitational collapse), a gravitational collapse should be observed. both types (as a cumulative effect).

Lit .: Landau L.D., Lifshits E.M., Field Theory, 4th ed., Moscow, 1962, § 89, 107; Observational Foundations of Cosmology, trans. from English, M., 1965.

G.I. Naan.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Redshift" is in other dictionaries:

Red shift shift of spectral lines of chemical elements to the red (long-wave) side. This phenomenon can be an expression of the Doppler effect or gravitational redshift, or a combination of both. Spectrum shift ... Wikipedia

Modern encyclopedia

An increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and its receiver ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Redshift- RED SHIFT, an increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. The redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Increase in wavelengths (l) lines in email. magn. spectrum of the source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. Quantitatively K. page. characterized by the value z = (lprin ltest) / ltest, where ltest and lprin ... ... Physical encyclopedia

- (symbol z), an increase in the wavelength of visible light or in another range of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, caused either by the removal of a source (Doppler effect), or by the expansion of the Universe (see EXPANDING UNIVERSE). Defined as change ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

An increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. The redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and its receiver ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

An increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. The redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and its receiver ... ... Astronomical Dictionary

redshift- raudonasis poslinkis statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: angl. red shift vok. Rotverschiebung, f rus. redshift, n pranc. décalage vers le rouge, m; déplacement vers le rouge, m ... Fizikos terminų žodynas

RED SHIFT

RED SHIFT

Increase in wavelengths (l) lines in e-magn. spectrum of the source (shift of the lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. Quantitatively K. page. is characterized by the value z = (lprin-ltest) / ltest, where ltest and lprin are, respectively, the radiation emitted by the source and received by the observer (radiation receiver). Two mechanisms lead to the appearance of To. Page.

To. Page, due to the Doppler effect, arises in the case when the light source relative to the observer leads to an increase in the distance between them (see DOPLER EFFECT). The relativistic. the case when the motion of the source v relative to the receiver is comparable to the speed of light (s), K. s. can also occur if the distance between the source and the receiver does not increase (the so-called transverse Doppler effect). To. S., Arising in this case, can be interpreted as a result of the relativistic. time deceleration at the source in relation to the observer (see RELATIVITY THEORY). Cosmologist. The spacecraft observed in distant galaxies and quasars is interpreted on the basis of the general theory of relativity (GR) as the effect of the expansion of the Metagalaxy (the mutual distance of galaxies from each other; (see COSMOLOGY)). The expansion of the Metagalaxy leads to an increase in the wavelengths of the relic radiation and a decrease in the energy of its quanta (i.e., to the cooling of the relic radiation).

Gravitats. K. s. occurs when the light receiver is in an area with less gravity. potential (fi2) than the source (fi1). In this case, spacecraft is a consequence of the slowing down of the rate of time near the gravitating mass and a decrease in the frequency of emitted light quanta (the general relativity effect): n = (1+ (fi2-fi1) / c2), An example of gravitats. K. s. can serve as a shift of the line in the spectra of dense stars - white dwarfs. Using the Mössbauer effect, in 1959 it was possible to measure the K. s. in gravitats. Earth.

Physical encyclopedic dictionary. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. . 1983 .

RED SHIFT

The increase in length is monochromatic. component of the spectrum of the radiation source in the observer's frame of reference in comparison with the wavelength of this component in its own. frame of reference. The term "K. s." arose in the study of spectral lines of optical. range shifted towards the long-wave (red) end of the spectrum. The reason To. S. motion of the source relative to the observer may appear - Doppler effect or (and) difference in field strength gravitation at the points of emission and registration of radiation - gravitational spacecraft. In both cases, the displacement parameter does not depend on the wavelength, so that the radiation energy distribution density f 0 () is associated with a similar density in the intrinsic. frame of reference f e(). ratio

Doppler shift of the wavelength in the spectrum of a source moving with radial velocity and full speed, is

For purely radial motion, the redshift ( z D >> 0) corresponds to an increase in the distance to the source (> 0), however, at a nonzero tangential component of the velocity, the value Z D> O can also be observed at<0.

Gravitats. K. s. was predicted by A. Einstein (A. Einstein, 1911) in the development of the general theory of relativity (GR). In the approximation linear with respect to the Newtonian potential (see. Gravitation law) , where respectively, the values ​​of gravitats. potential at the points of emission and registration of radiation ( z g> 0 in the case when the modulus is greater at the emission point). For massive compact objects with a strong gravitational field (e.g., neutron stars and black holes) you should use exact f-lami. In particular, gravitats. K. s. in the spectrum of spherical. body weight M and radius (r g - gravitational radius, G - gravitational constant) is defined by the expression

Initially for experiment. to test the Einstein effect, the spectra of the Sun and other asters were investigated. objects. For the sun z g 2 * 10 -6, which is too small for reliable measurement of the effect, but in the spectra white dwarfs (r 10 3 -10 4 km, r g 1-3 km, z g 10 -4 - 10 -5) the effect was found. In 1960, R. Pound and G. Rebka, using Mössbauer effect, measured the gravity. K. s. with the propagation of gamma radiation in terrestrial conditions ( z g 10 -15).

The concept of the cosmological. K. s. arose as a result of works (1910-29) V. Slipher, K. Wirtz, K. Lundmark and E. Hubble. The latter in 1929 established the so-called. Hubble law - approximately linear relationship z ,. from distance D to distant galaxies and their clusters: z c(H 0 / c) D, where H 0 - so-called. Hubble parameter [modern. grade H 0 75 km / (s * Mpc) with an uncertainty up to a factor of 1.5].

Cosmologist. K. s. is associated with the general expansion of the Universe and is due to the joint action of the Doppler and Einstein effects (for relatively nearby galaxies, with D<10 3 Мпк, осп. роль играет эффект Доплера). В спектрах галактик зарегистрировано макс. значение z c 3, in the spectra of quasars z c 4.5 (1988). In 1965 A. Penzias and R. Wilson discovered microwave background with temperature of 2.7 K, interpreted as a relic of the early stage of the expansion of the Universe. For the background radiation z c 1500.

Effect To. Page. in the spectra of distant galaxies (the effect of galaxy "runaway") was explained in the framework of a nonstationary cosmological model, based on general relativity (A.A.Fridman, 1922). For a nonstationary isotropic and homogeneous Universe (see. Cosmology) the value z c connected with scale factor R (t) in emission t e and registration t 0 light ratio

The expansion of the universe is answered here z c> 0. Hubble's law is regarded as linear to the latter relation with ... Specific type of function R (t) is determined by ur-ny gravitats. Fields of Oto. V. Yu. Terebizh.

Physical encyclopedia. In 5 volumes. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Chief Editor A.M. Prokhorov. 1988 .

See what "RED SHIFT" is in other dictionaries:

Red shift shift of spectral lines of chemical elements to the red (long-wave) side. This phenomenon can be an expression of the Doppler effect or gravitational redshift, or a combination of both. Spectrum shift ... Wikipedia

Modern encyclopedia

An increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and its receiver ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Redshift- RED SHIFT, an increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. The redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (symbol z), an increase in the wavelength of visible light or in another range of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, caused either by the removal of a source (Doppler effect), or by the expansion of the Universe (see EXPANDING UNIVERSE). Defined as change ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

An increase in the wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of the radiation source (shift of lines towards the red part of the spectrum) in comparison with the lines of the reference spectra. The redshift occurs when the distance between the radiation source and its receiver ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary