The systems approach is a direction of philosophy and methodology of scientific knowledge, which is based on the study of objects as systems.

The peculiarity of the systems approach is that it is focused on disclosing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, on identifying the various types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The concept of "systems approach" (from the English - systems approach) began to be widely used in 1960 - 1970, although the very desire to consider the object of research as an integral system arose in ancient philosophy and science (Plato, Aristotle). The idea of ​​a systemic organization of knowledge, which arose in ancient times, was formed in the Middle Ages and was most developed in German classical philosophy (Kant, Schelling). The classic example of a systemic study is Karl Marx's Capital. The principles embodied in it for the study of the organic whole (ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the unity of analysis and synthesis, logical and historical, the identification of different-quality connections and their interactions in the object, the synthesis of structural-functional and genetic ideas about the object, etc.) were the most important component dialectical materialist methodology of scientific knowledge. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution serves as a vivid example of the application of the systems approach in biology.

In the XX century. the systems approach occupies one of the leading places in scientific knowledge. This is primarily due to a change in the type of scientific and practical problems. In a whole number of fields of science, the central place is beginning to be occupied by the problems of studying the organization and functioning of complex self-developing objects, the boundaries and composition of which are not obvious and require special research in each individual case. The study of such objects - multilevel, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, technical - required the consideration of these objects as systems.

A number of scientific concepts arise, which are characterized by the use of the basic ideas of the systems approach. Thus, in the teachings of V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and the noosphere, a new type of objects is proposed to scientific knowledge - global systems. A. A. Bogdanov and a number of other researchers begin to develop the theory of organization. The selection of a special class of systems - information and control systems - served as the foundation for the emergence of cybernetics. In biology, systemic ideas are used in environmental studies, in the study of higher nervous activity, in the analysis of biological organization, in systematics. In economics, the principles of the systems approach are used in the formulation and solution of problems of optimal economic planning, which require the construction of multicomponent models of social systems of different levels. In the practice of management, the ideas of the systems approach are crystallized in the methodological tools of system analysis.

Thus, the principles of the systems approach apply to almost all areas of scientific knowledge and practice. At the same time, the systematic development of these principles begins in the methodological terms. Initially, methodological research was grouped around the problems of constructing a general theory of systems (the first program for its construction and the term itself were proposed by L. Bertalanffy). In the early 1920s. the young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began to study organisms as definite systems, summarizing his views in the book "Modern Theory of Development" (1929). He developed a systematic approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book "Robots, People and Consciousness" (1967), the scientist transferred the general theory of systems to the analysis of processes and phenomena of social life. In 1969 another book by Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory, was published. The researcher turns his systems theory into a general disciplinary science. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for the structural similarity of laws established in various disciplines, based on which it is possible to deduce system-wide laws.

However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of problems in the methodology of systems research significantly exceeds the scope of problems of general systems theory. To designate this broader sphere of methodological problems, the term "systems approach" is used, which has been used since the 1970s. firmly entered scientific use (in the scientific literature of different countries, other terms are used to denote this concept - "system analysis", "system methods", "system-structural approach", "general systems theory"; at the same time, the concepts of system analysis and the general theory of systems also has a specific, narrower meaning; with this in mind, the term "systems approach" should be considered more accurate, moreover, it is most common in the literature in Russian).

The following stages in the development of the systems approach in the XX century can be distinguished. (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. The main stages in the development of a systems approach

The systems approach does not exist in the form of a strict methodological concept, but rather a set of research principles. The systems approach is an approach in which the object under study is considered as a system, i.e. a set of interconnected elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), communication with the external environment, feedback. In accordance with the general theory of systems, an object is considered as a system and at the same time as an element of a larger system.

The study of an object from the standpoint of a systems approach includes the following Aspects:

• - system-element (identification of the elements that make up a given system);
• - systemic-structural (the study of internal connections between the elements of the system);
• - system-functional (identification of system functions);
• - system-target (identifying the goals and sub-goals of the system);
• - system-resource (analysis of the resources required for the functioning of the system);
• - system-integration (determination of the set of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and different from the properties of its elements);
• - system-communication (analysis of external relations of the system with the external environment and other systems);
• - systemic-historical (studying the emergence of a system, stages of its development and prospects).

Thus, the systems approach is a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for researching and constructing complex objects - systems of different types and classes.

You can find a twofold understanding of the systems approach: on the one hand, it is the consideration and analysis of existing systems, on the other hand, the creation, design, synthesis of systems to achieve goals.

As applied to organizations, the systems approach is most often understood as a complex study of an object as a whole from the standpoint of system analysis, i.e. clarification of a complex problem and its structuring into a series of problems solved using economic and mathematical methods, finding criteria for their solution, detailing goals, designing an effective organization to achieve goals.

System analysis is used as one of the most important methods in the systems approach, as an effective means of solving complex, usually not clearly formulated problems. Systems analysis can be considered a further development of the ideas of cybernetics: it examines general laws related to complex systems that are studied by any science.

Systems engineering - applied science, which investigates the problems of real creation of complex control systems.

The system building process consists of six stages:

• 1) system analysis;
• 2) system programming, which includes the definition of current goals: scheduling and work plans;
• 3) system design - the actual design of the system, its subsystems and components to achieve optimal efficiency;
• 4) creation of software programs;
• 5) putting the system into operation and checking it;
• 6) system maintenance.

The quality of the organization of the system is usually expressed in the synergy effect. It manifests itself in the fact that the result of the functioning of the system as a whole is higher than the sum of the results of the same name for the individual elements that make up the totality. In practice, this means that from the same elements we can obtain systems of different or identical properties, but different efficiency, depending on how these elements are interconnected, i.e. how the system itself will be organized.

Organization, which is an organized whole in its most general abstract form, is the ultimate extension of any system. The concept of "organization" as an ordered state of the whole is identical to the concept of "system". The concept opposite to "system" is the concept of "non-system".

A system is nothing more than a static organization, i.e. some currently fixed state of order.

Considering an organization as a system allows you to systematize and classify organizations according to a number of common characteristics. So, according to the degree of complexity, nine levels of the hierarchy are distinguished:

• 1) the level of static organization, reflecting the static relationship between the elements of the whole;
• 2) the level of a simple dynamic system with preprogrammed mandatory movements;
• 3) the level of the information organization, or the level of the "thermostat";
• 4) self-preserving organization - an open system, or the level of the cell;
• 5) genetically public organization;
• 6) an organization of the "animal" type, characterized by the presence of mobility, purposeful behavior and awareness;
• 7) the level of the individual human organism - the "human" level;
• 8) social organization, which is a variety of public institutions;
• 9) transcendental systems, i.e. organizations that exist in the form of various structures and relationships.

The use of a systematic approach to the study of an organization allows you to significantly expand the understanding of its essence and development trends, to reveal more deeply and comprehensively the content of the ongoing processes, to reveal the objective laws of the formation of this multidimensional system.

The systems approach, or the systemic method, is an explicit (explicitly, openly expressed) description of procedures for determining objects as systems and methods of their specific systemic study (descriptions, explanations, predictions, etc.).

A systematic approach to the study of the properties of an organization allows us to establish its integrity, consistency and organization. With a systematic approach, the attention of researchers is directed to its composition, to the properties of elements that are manifested in interaction. Establishment in the system of stable interconnection of elements at all levels and steps, i.e. the establishment of the law of connections between elements, is the discovery of the structure of the system as the next step in the concretization of the whole.

Structure as an internal organization of a system, a reflection of its internal content is manifested in the orderliness of the interrelationships of its parts. This allows you to express a number of essential aspects of the organization as a system. The structure of the system, expressing its essence, is manifested in the totality of the laws of a given area of ​​phenomena.

The study of the structure of an organization is an important stage in the knowledge of the variety of connections that take place within the object under study. This is one of the aspects of consistency. The other side consists in identifying intra-organizational relations and relationships of the object under consideration with other components of a higher-level system. In this regard, it is necessary, firstly, to consider the individual properties of the investigated object in their relation to the object as a whole, and secondly, to reveal the laws of behavior.

Lecture 2. Theoretical foundations of the systems approach

1. The essence of the systematic approach.

2. Basic concepts of the systems approach.

3. Operating system (work system).

2. Control system. System control mechanism.

System concept.

At present, systems theory and a systems approach to the analysis of various objects are becoming more and more widespread in the scientific discipline.

General systems theory is a scientific direction associated with the development of a set of philosophical, methodological, specific scientific and applied problems of analysis and synthesis of complex systems of arbitrary nature.

The basis for the emergence of the general theory of systems is the analogy (isomorphism) of processes occurring in systems of various types. The strictly proven isomorphism for systems of various natures makes it possible to transfer knowledge from one sphere to another. The analogy of various processes and the organization of various objects made it possible to create a set of scientific provisions that are correct for the analysis of various areas. Thus, all phenomena and objects of the objective world can be represented in the form of systems. All systems (systems from psychology, medicine, economics, etc.) have common laws of development, organization and disorganization.

Thus, systems analysis is a methodology, the study of objects by representing them as systems and analyzing these systems. The systems approach in economics is a comprehensive study of the economy as a whole from the standpoint of systems theory.

Basic concepts of the systems approach.

System(from the Greek σύστημα, "integral", "whole" "composed") - something organizational, a single whole that can be opposed to the environment.

The term is used to designate both concrete real objects (for example, the economic system of Ukraine, the nervous system, the fuel system of a car), and to designate abstract theoretical models (for example, a market economic system, science as a system of knowledge about something). Thus, we can say that:

1. Any object considered as a system appears in relation to other objects and surrounding, external conditions as something single and separate;

2. Systems form an organized integrity by their internal connections and relationships;

3. The system, as a scientific abstraction, is based on the objective existence of integral objects in the material world. Moreover, it differs from a real object:

A distraction from many internal aspects and features of the object itself, which are insignificant from the point of view of the researcher.

4. For correct understanding system identification process it is necessary to assume the presence object of observation, observer and the purpose of observation... The presence of an observer and a goal of observation leads to the fact that a real object becomes a source of revealing a number of systems. For example, the human body is the basis for identifying a number of systems - the nervous system, the digestive system, the skeletal system. Technology can be viewed from an economic point of view or from a technological point of view.

Examples of systems - Banking system Ventilation system Intelligent system Information system Computer system Nervous system Operating system Optimal system

The basic concepts of the systems approach are also "entering the system", "exiting the system", "feedback", "external environment".

System input- components entering the system. Any information, energy, matter entering the system.

System output- components leaving the system. Any information, energy, matter leaving the system.

Feedback Is how the system's output influences the input of the system.

Wednesday (external environment)- for a given system - a set of all objects not included in the system, changes in properties of which affect the system.

A graphical model of the system is shown in Figure 1.

Enter exit

Feedback

Rice. 1. Graphic model of the system

For the study of systems, in turn, a number of other approaches are taken, which are a logical continuation of systems theory: functional, structural, dynamic approaches.

Functional approach- an approach to the study of systems in which they are not interested in "what is it?" structure and structure, and what does it do? explore its functions and behavior.

Black box method- the method of functional research of systems, in which it is considered that the internal structure of the system, the interaction of its elements and internal states are closed to the observer. In this case, only the states of the inputs and outputs of the given system are observed and investigated, i.e. the function that a specific system implements.

Basic concepts of the functional approach to the study of systems: input, output, black box, function

As the study of the functional properties of the researcher arises the need for a deeper study of specific systems and he moves from the study of the function of the system to the study of its structure.

Structural Approach- an approach to the study, in which the internal structure of the system, the internal hierarchical and functional interconnection of the elements of the system are investigated.

Structure(from Lat. struktura - structure, location, order) - a set of elements and stable connections between them, ensuring its integrity and preservation of basic properties under various internal and external influences. The "dismemberment" of the system can be done with different depths and varying degrees of detail. Therefore, it is advisable to single out such concepts as "subsystem" and "element". Subsystem- a part of a system that has signs of integrity within a given system and is capable of performing relatively independent functions, having sub-goals aimed at achieving the overall goal of the system.

The subsystem, in turn, can be viewed as a system. Each system also consists of parts called elements. System element- such a part of the system, which in the conditions of this study appears to be indivisible, is not subject to further dismemberment into components.

At the same time, the system itself can be part of a larger system, which is called a supersystem. Subsystem- a system that is part of another system and is capable of performing relatively independent functions, with sub-objectives aimed at achieving the overall goal of the system.

All subsystems and elements of the system are interconnected to perform the general function of the system.

Relationship between elements- means that the output of one of them is connected to the input of the other, and therefore changing the output states of the first one accordingly changes the input states of the second element. In turn, the output of the second element can be associated with the input of the first.

Basic concepts of the structural approach to the study of systems: element, structure, subsystem, supersystem, communication.

Of particular importance is the study of systems in dynamics, i.e. in its movement, development, change of the system. Therefore, static system analysis and dynamic system analysis are distinguished. Static analysis is simpler, it allows you to identify the primary foundations of the functioning and structure of the system. Dynamic analysis is more complex; it allows you to study systems in motion in the course of dynamics.

Static analysis of a system is the study of systems outside the process of their changes, as if in a frozen state of equilibrium of elements. Revealing the internal structure, basic elements and connections between them.

Dynamic system analysis - the study of systems in the process of change, development, movement. Analysis of contradictions. Isseldovie patterns and tendencies of development, identification of crises and cycles of development.

Basic concepts of the dynamic approach: change, development, dynamics, cycle, evolution.

Tab. 1. Basic properties of systems *.

In our time, an unprecedented progress of knowledge is taking place, which, on the one hand, has led to the invention and accumulation of many new information, factors from various areas of life, and thereby confronted humanity with the need for their systematization, finding the common in the particular, unchanging in the changing. There is no unambiguous concept of a system. In the most general form, a system is understood as a set of interconnected parts that form a certain integrity, a certain unity.

A systematic approach is a methodology for considering various kinds of complexes, which makes it possible to more deeply and better comprehend their essence (structure, organization and other features) and find optimal ways and methods of influencing the development of such complexes and their control system.

A systematic approach is a prerequisite for the application of mathematical methods, but its significance goes beyond this framework. The systems approach is a comprehensive, holistic approach. It implies a multilateral account of the specific features of the corresponding object, which determine its structure, and, consequently, organization.

Each system has its own inherent features. Their own reaction to management, their own ability to respond to various kinds of influences, their own forms of possible deviation from the program.

Production facilities are complex hierarchical systems consisting of a complex of interrelated and interdependent subsystems: an enterprise, a workshop, a production site, a "man-machine" section.

Work on the organization and management of production consists in the design and operation of systems. They include:

• 1) Establishing the nature of the relationship between the elements of the system (subsystems) and the channels through which communications are carried out within the system;
• 2) Creation of conditions for the coordinated development of the elements of the system and the achievement of the goals for the implementation of which it is intended;
• 3) Creation of a mechanism to ensure this agreement;
• 4) Organizational structure of management bodies, development of methods and techniques for managing the system.

The systematic approach to the management of production (organization) is most widespread in the United States and is used in almost all countries. It involves considering the firm as a complex system consisting of various subsystems and functions. This is due to the classification of subsystems that make up either the organizational structure of the firm, or the production structure.

The concept of "system" assumes that all subsystems included in it are closely interconnected and have diverse connections with the external environment. The firm is seen as an organization that is a complex of interrelated elements. At the same time, the internal structure of the organizational system allows for the relative autonomy of subsystems that form a hierarchy of subsystems.

The systematic approach assumes the presence of a special unity of the system with the environment, it is defined as a set of external elements that affect the interaction of the elements of the system.

To express the essence of the system, various means are used: graphic, mathematical, matrix, "decision tree", etc. each of these means cannot fully reflect the essence of the system, which consists in the interconnection of its elements. managerial pension Chelyabinsk

A comprehensive study of the interrelationships of elements (subsystems) is necessary to build a model of a management object - a firm or an enterprise. Experiments with the model make it possible to improve management decisions, that is, to find the most effective ways to achieve goals.

The study of the connections of elements (subsystems) is necessary to represent the model of the control object. This makes it possible to improve management decisions, find more effective ways to achieve goals.

A systematic approach to production management is based on the fact that the development of plans for diversified and decentralized production is subject to the interests of interaction between production units that make up the production (operating) system. This approach has been developed through the use of computer technology and the creation of centralized information systems.

The use of computer technology based on a systematic approach allows us to improve the methods and structure of production management.

The systems approach as a general methodological principle is used in various branches of science and human activity. The epistemological basis (epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies the forms and methods of scientific knowledge) is the general theory of systems, which was initiated by the Australian biologist L. Bertalanffy. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for the structural similarity of laws established in various disciplines, based on which it is possible to deduce system-wide laws.

In this regard, the systems approach represents one of the forms of methodological knowledge associated with the study and creation of objects as systems, and applies only to systems (the first feature of the systems approach).

The second feature of the systems approach is the hierarchy of cognition, which requires a multilevel study of the subject: the study of the subject itself; "Own" level; the study of the same subject as an element of a wider system - the "higher" level and, finally, the study of this subject in relation to the elements constituting the given subject - the lower level.

The next feature of the systems approach is the study of the integrative properties and patterns of systems and systems complexes, the disclosure of the basic mechanisms of integration of the whole. And, finally, an important feature of the systems approach is its focus on obtaining quantitative characteristics, creating methods that narrow the ambiguity of concepts, definitions, and assessments. In other words, the systematic approach requires to consider the problem not in isolation, but in the unity of connections with the environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and individual element, to make associations between general and particular goals. All this forms a special method of thinking that allows you to flexibly respond to changes in the environment and make informed decisions.

With this in mind, we will define the concept of a systematic approach.

A systematic approach is an approach to the study of an object (problem, phenomenon, process) as a system in which elements, internal and external relations are highlighted that most significantly affect the investigated results of its functioning, and the goals of each of the elements are determined based on the general purpose of the object ...

In practice, to implement a systematic approach, it is necessary to provide for the following sequence of actions:

the formulation of the research task;

identifying the object of research as a system from the environment;

establishing the internal structure of the system and identifying external relations;

defining (or setting) goals for the elements based on the manifested (or expected) result of the entire system as a whole;

developing a model of the system and conducting research on it.

Currently, many works are devoted to systems research. What they have in common is that they are all devoted to solving systemic problems, in which the object of research is represented as a system.

formulation of goals and clarification of their hierarchy before starting any activities related to management, especially with decision-making;

achievement of the set goals at minimal cost through a comparative analysis of alternative ways and methods of achieving goals and making the appropriate choice;

quantitative assessment (quantification) of goals, methods and means of achieving them, based not on partial criteria, but on a broad and comprehensive assessment of all possible and planned results of activities.

The broadest interpretation of the methodology of the systems approach belongs to Professor Ludwig Bertalanffy, who put forward the idea of ​​"general systems theory" back in 1937.

Bertalanffy defines the subject of "general systems theory" as the formation and fixation of general principles that are valid for systems in general. “The consequence of the presence of common properties of systems,” he wrote, “is the manifestation of structural similarities, or isomorphisms, in various areas. This correspondence is caused by the fact that the given unity can in some respects be regarded as "systems", those complexes of elements that are in interaction. In fact, similar concepts, models and laws were often found in very far from each other areas, independently and on the basis of completely different facts. "

System tasks can be of two types: system analysis or system synthesis.

The task of analysis presupposes the determination of the properties of the system by the structure known to it, and the task of synthesis is the determination of the structure of the system by its properties.

The task of synthesis is to create a new structure, which should have the desired properties, and the task of analysis is to study the properties of an already existing formation.

Systems analysis and synthesis involves the study of large systems, complex problems. N.N. Moiseev notes: "System analysis ... requires the analysis of complex information of various physical nature." Based on this, F.I. Peregudov defines that "... systems analysis is the theory and practice of improving intervention in problem situations." Consider the features of the implementation of the systematic approach. Any research is preceded by its formulation, from which it should be clear what needs to be done and on the basis of what to do it.

In the formulation of the research task, one must try to distinguish between general and particular plans. The overall plan determines the type of problem - analysis or synthesis. The private plan of the problem reflects the functional purpose of the system and describes the characteristics to be investigated.

For example:

• 1) develop (general plan - synthesis task) a space system intended for operational observation of the earth's surface (private plan);
• 2) determine (general plan - the task of analysis) efficiency, observation of the earth's surface using a space system (private plan).

The specificity of the formulation of the problem largely depends on the knowledge of the researcher and the available information. The idea of ​​the system is changing and this leads to the fact that there are almost always differences between the set and the problem being solved. To make them insignificant, the formulation of the problem must be corrected in the process of its solution. The changes will mainly relate to the private plan of the formulated task.

The peculiarity of distinguishing an object as a system from the environment is that it is necessary to select such elements of it, the activities or properties of which are manifested in the field of study of the given object.

The need to identify (or create) one or another connection is determined by the degree of its impact on the studied characteristics: those that have an important effect should be left. In cases where the links are unclear, it is necessary to enlarge the structure of the system to known levels and conduct research in order to further deepen the detail to the required level. Elements that have no connections with others should not be introduced into the structure of the system.

With this approach, any system, object is considered as a set of interconnected and interacting elements that have an input, connections with the external environment, an output, a goal and feedback.

When conducting a study of the management system, the systematic approach provides for the consideration of organizations as an open multipurpose system that has a certain framework, interacting with each other, internal and external environments, external and internal goals, sub-goals of each of the subsystems, strategies for achieving goals, etc.

At the same time, a change in one of the elements of any system causes a change in other elements and subsystems, which is based on the dialectical approach and the interrelation and interdependence of all phenomena in nature and society.

The systematic approach provides for the study of the entire set of parameters and indicators of the functioning of the system in dynamics, which requires the study of intra-organizational processes of adaptation, self-regulation, self-actualization, forecasting, planning, coordination, decision-making, etc.

The systems approach considers the study of an object as a system of an integral complex of interrelated and interacting elements in unity with the environment in which it is located. One of the most important areas that make up the methodological basis of research for relatively complex control systems is system analysis. Its application is relevant for tasks such as analysis and improvement of the management system during the restructuring of organizations, diversification of production, technical re-equipment and other tasks that constantly arise in market conditions, and hence the dynamics of the external environment. A feature of system analysis is the combination in it of various methods of analysis with general systems theory, operations research, hardware and software controls.

Operations research as a scientific direction uses mathematical modeling of processes and phenomena. The use of operations research methods within the framework of a systematic approach is especially advisable when studying organizational systems for making optimal decisions. From what has been said, the conclusion follows: the establishment of the internal structure is not only an operation of the initial stage of research, it will be refined and changed as the research progresses. This process distinguishes complex systems from simple ones, in which the elements and connections between them are not an operation only at the initial stage of research, it will be refined and changed as research progresses. This process distinguishes complex systems from simple ones, in which the elements and connections between them do not change during the entire research cycle.

In any system, each element of its structure functions on the basis of some of its goals. When identifying (or setting) it, one should be guided by the requirement of subordination to the overall goal of the system. It should be noted here that sometimes the particular goals of the elements are not always consistent with the ultimate goals of the system itself.

Complex systems are usually investigated on models. The purpose of modeling is to determine the system's responses to influences, the boundaries of the system's functioning, and the effectiveness of control algorithms. The model should allow for the possibility of variations in the change in the number of elements and the connections between them in order to study various options for constructing the system. The process of studying complex systems is iterative. And the number of possible approximations depends on a priori knowledge of the system and the rigidity of the requirements for the accuracy of the results obtained.

Based on the research carried out, recommendations are developed:

by the nature of the interaction between the system and the environment;

the structure of the system, types of organization and types of connections between elements;

the system control law.

The main practical task of the systemic approach in the study of control systems is that, having discovered and described the complexity, also prove additional physically realizable connections that, being imposed on a complex control system, would make it manageable within the required limits, while preserving such areas of independence that contribute to improving the efficiency of the system.

The included new feedbacks should increase the favorable and weaken the unfavorable tendencies in the behavior of the control system, preserving and strengthening its purposefulness, but at the same time orienting it towards the interests of the supersystem.

The need to use a systematic approach to management has become more acute due to the need to manage objects that are large in space and time in the context of dynamic changes in the external environment.

As the complexity of economic and social relations in various organizations, more and more problems arise, the solution of which is impossible without the use of an integrated systematic approach.

The desire to highlight the hidden relationships between various scientific disciplines was the reason for the development of a general theory of systems. Moreover, local solutions without taking into account the insufficient number of factors, local optimization at the level of individual elements, as a rule, lead to a decrease in the effectiveness of the organization's activities, and sometimes to a result that is dangerous in terms of consequences.

The interest in the systematic approach is explained by the fact that it can be used to solve problems that are difficult to solve using traditional methods. The formulation of the problem is important here, since it opens up the possibility of using existing or newly created research methods.

The systems approach is a universal research method based on the perception of the object under study as something whole, consisting of interconnected parts and being at the same time part of a higher order system. It allows you to build multivariate models that are characteristic of socio-economic systems to which organizations belong. The purpose of the systems approach is that it forms the systems thinking required by the leaders of organizations, and increases the effectiveness of decisions.

The systems approach is usually understood as a part of dialectics (the science of development) that studies objects as systems, that is, as something whole. Therefore, in general terms, it can be presented as a way of thinking in relation to organization and management.

When considering the systematic approach as a method of researching organizations, one should take into account the fact that the object of research is always multifaceted and requires a comprehensive, integrated approach, therefore, specialists of various profiles should be involved in the research. Comprehensiveness in an integrated approach expresses a particular requirement, and in a systemic approach it is one of the methodological principles.

Thus, an integrated approach develops a strategy and tactics, and a systemic approach develops a methodology and methods. In this case, there is a mutual enrichment of the integrated and systemic approaches. The systematic approach is characterized by formal rigor, which the integrated approach does not have. The systems approach considers the organizations under study as systems consisting of structured and functionally organized subsystems (or elements). An integrated approach is used not so much for considering objects from the standpoint of integrity, but for a multifaceted consideration of the object under study. The signs and properties of these approaches are considered in detail by V.V. Isaev and A.M. Nemchin and are given in table. 2.3.

Comparison of integrated and systematic approaches

Table 2.3

Renowned specialist in the field of operations research R.L. In defining a system, Ackoff emphasizes that it is any community that consists of interrelated parts.

In this case, the parts can also represent a lower level system, which are called subsystems. For example, the economic system is a part (subsystem) of the system of social relations, and the production system is a part (subsystem) of the economic system.

The division of the system into parts (elements) can be performed in various versions and an unlimited number of times. The important factors here are the goal of the researcher and the language used to describe the system under study.

Consistency lies in the desire to explore an object from different angles and in relation to the external environment.

The systematic approach is based on principles, among which the following are mostly distinguished:

• 1) the requirement to consider the system as a part (subsystem) of some more general system located in the external environment;
• 2) division of the given system into parts, subsystems;
• 3) the possession of a system of special properties, which may not be present in individual elements;
• 4) the manifestation of the value function of the system, which consists in striving to maximize the efficiency of the system itself;
• 5) the requirement to consider the set of elements of the system as a whole, in which the principle of unity actually manifests itself (consideration of systems both as something whole and as a set of parts).

At the same time, the following principles determine consistency:

• development (variability of the system as the accumulation of information received from the external environment);
• target orientation (the resulting target vector of the system is not always a set of optimal goals of its subsystems);
• functionality (the structure of the system follows its functions, corresponds to them);
• decentralization (as a combination of centralization and decentralization);
• hierarchies (subordination and ranking of systems);
• uncertainty (probabilistic occurrence of events);
• organization (degree of implementation of decisions).

The essence of the systems approach as interpreted by Academician V.G. Afanasyev looks like a combination of descriptions such as:

• morphological (what parts the system consists of);
• functional (what functions the system performs);
• informational (transfer of information between parts of the system, a method of interaction based on connections between parts);
• communication (interconnection of the system with other systems both vertically and horizontally);
• integration (changing the system in time and space);
• description of the history of the system (the emergence, development and liquidation of the system).

V social system Three types of connections can be distinguished: the internal connections of the person himself, the connections between individuals and the connection between people in society as a whole. There is no effective management without well-established connections. Communication unites the organization into a coherent whole.

Schematically, the systematic approach looks like a sequence of certain procedures:

• 1) determination of the characteristics of the system (integrity and many divisions into elements);
• 2) study of the properties, relationships and connections of the system;
• 3) establishing the structure of the system and its hierarchical structure;
• 4) fixing the relationship between the system and the external environment;
• 5) a description of the behavior of the system;
• 6) a description of the goals of the system;
• 7) determining the information required to manage the system.

For example, in medicine, the systemic approach is manifested in the fact that some nerve cells perceive signals about the emerging needs of the body; others seek in memory how this need was satisfied in the past; still others orient the organism in the environment; the fourth - form a program of subsequent actions, etc. This is how the organism functions as a whole, and this model can be used in the analysis of organizational systems.

L. von Bertalanffy's articles on a systems approach to organic systems in the early 1960s. were noticed by the Americans, who began to use systemic ideas, first in military affairs, and then in economics - to develop national economic programs.

1970s were noted for the widespread use of a systems approach around the world. It was used in all areas of human life. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to "non-systemic factors" (human influence), the systemic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark testifies to the fact that "the world is not as systemic" as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.

Professor A.I. Prigogine defines the limitation of the systemic approach as follows:

"1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relations, goals, information, in situations. It cannot be completely overcome, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates over certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent simulated, cognizable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.

• 2. Consistency means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its participants are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations bring some consistency into service behavior, but always only partially. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.
• 3. Consistency means integrity, but, say, the client base of wholesalers, retail companies, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them indefinitely. Information flows in the organization also lack integrity. Isn't it the same with the resources of the organization? " ...

Nevertheless, a systematic approach allows you to streamline thinking in the life of an organization at all stages of its development - and this is the main thing.

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………… 2

1. The concept of a systematic approach, its main features and principles ……………… .2

2. Organizational system : main elements and types ………………………… 3

3. Systems theory …………………………………………………………………… 5

• Basic concepts and characteristics of general systems theory

Example: a bank from a systems theory point of view

4. The value of a systems approach in management …………………………………………...7 Introduction

As the industrial revolution progressed, the growth of large organizational forms of business stimulated new ideas about how businesses function and how they should be run. Today there is a developed theory that provides directions for achieving effective management. The first emerging theory is usually called the classical school of management, there is also a school of social relations, the theory of a systems approach to organizations, the theory of probability, etc.

In my report, I want to talk about the theory of a systems approach to organizations, as ideas for achieving effective management.

1. The concept of a systems approach, its main features and principles

In our time, an unprecedented progress of knowledge is taking place, which, on the one hand, has led to the discovery and accumulation of many new facts, information from various areas of life, and thereby confronted humanity with the need to systematize them, to find the common in the particular, constant in the changing. There is no unambiguous concept of a system. In the most general form, a system is understood as a set of interrelated elements that form a certain integrity, a certain unity.

The study of objects and phenomena as systems has caused the formation of a new approach in science - a systematic approach.

The systems approach as a general methodological principle is used in various branches of science and human activity. The epistemological basis (epistemology - a branch of philosophy, study. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge) is the general theory of systems, the beginning of the cat. put the Australian biologist L. Bertalanffy. In the early 1920s, the young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began to study organisms as specific systems, summarizing his view in the book Modern Theory of Development (1929). In this book, he developed a systematic approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book "Robots, People and Consciousness" (1967), he transferred the general theory of systems to the analysis of processes and phenomena of social life. 1969 - "General Systems Theory". Bertalanffy turns his systems theory into a general disciplinary science. The purpose of this science, he saw in the search for the structural similarity of the laws established in various disciplines, based on the cat. system-wide regularities can be derived.

We define traits systems approach:

1. Syst. approach - a form of methodological knowledge, communication. with the study and creation of objects as systems, and applies only to systems.

2. The hierarchy of cognition, requiring a multilevel study of the subject: the study of the subject itself - "own" ur-n; the study of the same subject as an element of a wider system - "higher" ur-n; the study of this subject in relation to the elements constituting this subject - "lower" ur-n.

3. The systemic approach requires to consider the problem not in isolation, but in the unity of connections with the environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and individual element, to make associations between general and particular goals.

With this in mind, we define systems approach concept:

Syst. an approach is an approach to the study of an object (problem, phenomenon, process) as a system, in a cat. the elements, internal and external connections, which most significantly affect the investigated results of its functioning, are identified, and the goals of each of the elements, based on the general purpose of the object.

We can also say that the systematic approach - this is a direction of the methodology of scientific knowledge and practical activity, which is based on the study of any object as a complex integral socio-economic system.

Let's turn to history.

Before becoming at the beginning of the XX century. management sciences rulers, ministers, commanders, builders making decisions were guided by intuition, experience, traditions. Acting in specific situations, they sought to find the best solutions. Depending on experience and talent, the manager could expand the spatial and temporal framework of the situation and spontaneously comprehend his control object more or less systemically. But nevertheless, until the XX century. management was dominated by a situational approach, or management according to circumstances. The defining principle of this approach is the adequacy of management decisions in relation to a specific situation. Adequate in this situation is the decision that is the best from the point of view of changing the situation, immediately after the provision of appropriate managerial influence on it.

Thus, a situational approach is an orientation towards the nearest positive result ("and then it will be seen ..."). It is thought that "further" will again be the search for a better solution in the situation that will arise. But the decision at the moment is the best, it may turn out to be completely different as soon as the situation changes or unaccounted circumstances are revealed in it.

The desire to respond to each new turn or reversal (change of vision) of the situation in an adequate way leads to the fact that the manager is forced to make more and more new decisions that run counter to the previous ones. He actually ceases to control events, and floats with their flow.

This does not mean that case management is ineffective in principle. A situational approach to decision-making is necessary and justified when the situation itself is extraordinary and the use of previous experience is obviously risky, when the situation changes quickly and in an unpredictable way, when there is no time to take into account all the circumstances. So, for example, rescuers of the Ministry of Emergency Situations often have to look for the best solution precisely within the framework of a specific situation. But nevertheless, in the general case, the situational approach is not effective enough and must be overcome, replaced or supplemented by a systemic approach.

1. Integrity, allowing to consider simultaneously the system as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

2. Hierarchy of structure, those. the presence of a set (at least two) of elements located on the basis of subordination of the elements of the lower level to the elements of the highest level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible on the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is the interaction of two subsystems: managing and controlled. One obeys the other.

3. Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationship within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

4. Plurality, allowing the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

2. Organizational system: basic elements and types

Any organization is considered as an organizational and economic system that has inputs and outputs and a certain number of external relations. Should be given a definition of the concept of "organization". There have been various attempts in history to identify this concept.

1. The first attempt was based on the idea of ​​expediency. Organization is a purposeful arrangement of parts of a whole that has a specific purpose.

2. Organization - a social mechanism for achieving goals (organizational, group, individual).

3. Organization - harmony, or correspondence, between parts and the whole. Any system develops on the basis of the struggle of opposites.

4. Organization is a whole that is not reduced to a simple arithmetic sum of its constituent elements. This is a whole, which is always more or less than the sum of its parts (it all depends on the effectiveness of connections).

5. Chester Bernard (in the West is considered one of the founders of modern management theory): when people come together and formally decide to unite their efforts to achieve common goals, they create an organization.

It was a retrospective. Today, an organization can be defined as a social community that brings together a set of individuals to achieve a common goal, which (individuals) act on the basis of certain procedures and rules.

Based on the previously given definition of the system, we will define the organizational system.

Organizational system- this is a certain set of internally interconnected parts of the organization that forms a kind of integrity.

The main elements of the organizational system (and hence the objects of organizational management) are:

· production

Marketing and sales

Finance

Information

· Personnel, human resources - have a system-forming quality, the efficiency of the use of all other resources depends on them.

These elements are the main objects of organizational management. But the organizational system has another side:

People... The manager's job is to facilitate the coordination and integration of human activities.

Goals and tasks... An organizational goal is an ideal blueprint for the future state of an organization. This goal helps to unite the efforts of people and their resources. The goals are formed on the basis of common interests, therefore the organization is a tool for achieving goals.

Organizational structure... A structure is a way of bringing together the elements of a system. Organizational structure is a way of connecting various parts of an organization into a certain integrity (the main types of organizational structure are hierarchical, matrix, entrepreneurial, mixed, etc.). When we design and maintain these structures, we are in control.

Specialization and separation labor... This is also an object of management. The fragmentation of complex production processes, operations and tasks into components that imply the specialization of human labor.

Organizational power- this is the right, ability (knowledge + skills) and readiness (will) of the leader to pursue his own line in the preparation, adoption and implementation of managerial decisions. Each of these components is required for the exercise of power. Power is interaction. A powerless and ineffective manager cannot organize the function of coordination and integration of people's activities. Organizational power is not only a subject, but also an object of management.

Organizational the culture- the system of traditions, beliefs, values, symbols, rituals, myths, norms of communication between people inherent in the organization. Organizational culture gives an organization its individuality, its own face. Most importantly, it brings people together, creates organizational integrity.

Organizational boundaries- these are material and non-material constraints that fix the isolation of a given organization from other objects in the external environment of the organization. The manager must have the ability to expand (moderately) the boundaries of his own organization. In moderation means taking only what you can keep. Managing boundaries means defining them in time.

Organizational systems can be divided into closed and open:

Closed an organizational system is one that has no connection with its external environment (that is, it does not exchange products, services, goods, etc.) with the external environment. An example is subsistence farming.

Open the organizational system has connections with the external environment, that is, with other organizations, institutions that have connections with the external environment.

Thus, an organization as a system is a set of interrelated elements that form integrity (i.e., internal unity, continuity, mutual connection). Any organization is an open system, since interacts with the external environment. It receives resources from the environment in the form of capital, raw materials, energy, information, people, equipment, etc., which become elements of its internal environment. Part of the resources with the help of certain technologies is processed, converted into products and services, which are then transferred to the external environment.

3. Systems theory

Let me remind you that systems theory was developed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 20th century. Systems theory deals with the analysis, design and operation of systems - independent business units that are formed by interacting, interconnected and interdependent parts. It is clear that any organizational form of business meets these criteria and can be studied using the concepts and means of systems theory.

Any enterprise is a system that transforms a set of resources invested in production - costs (raw materials, machines, people) - into goods and services. It functions within a larger system - the foreign policy, economic, social and technical environment, in which it constantly enters into complex interactions. It includes a series of subsystems that are also interconnected and interact. A malfunction in one part of the system causes difficulties in other parts. For example, a large bank is a system that operates within a wider environment, interacts with and is associated with it, and also experiences its impact. Departments and branches of the bank are subsystems that must interact without conflict in order for the bank as a whole to work effectively. If something is disturbed in the subsystem, it will ultimately (if not restrained) affect the efficiency of the bank as a whole.

Basic concepts and characteristics of general systems theory:

1. System components(elements, subsystems). Any system, regardless of its openness, is determined through its composition. These components and the connections between them create the properties of the system, its essential characteristics.

2. System boundaries- these are all kinds of material and non-material constraints that distance the system from the external environment. From the point of view of the general theory of systems, each system acts as a part of a larger system (which is called a super-system, supersystem, supersystem). In turn, each system consists of two or more subsystems.

3. Synergy(from Greek - acting together). This concept is used to describe phenomena in which the whole is always greater or less than the sum of the parts that make up this whole. The system functions until the relationship between the components of the system becomes antagonistic.

4. Input - Transform - Output... The organizational system in dynamics is presented as three processes. Their interaction gives a cycle of events. Any open system has an event loop. With a systematic approach, it is important to study the characteristics of an organization as a system, i.e. characteristics of "input", "process" ("transformation") and characteristics of "output". With a systematic approach based on marketing research, the exit parameters, those. goods or services, namely what to produce, with what quality indicators, with what costs, for whom, at what time to sell and at what price. Answers to these questions must be clear and timely. As a result, the “output” should be competitive products or services. Then determine "input" parameters, those. the need for resources (material financial, labor and information) is investigated, which is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (level of technology, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and the parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social, environmental and etc.). Finally, research is equally important. parameters of the "process" converting resources into finished products. At this stage, depending on the object of research, a production technology or control technology, as well as factors and ways of its improvement, are considered.

5. Cycle of life... Any open system has a life cycle:

occurrenceÞ becomingÞ functioningÞ crisisÞ crash

6. Backbone element- an element of the system, on which the functioning of all other elements and the viability of the system as a whole depend to a decisive extent.

Characteristics of open organizational systems

1. Having an event loop.

2. Negative entropy(neo-entropy, anti-entropy)

a) entropy in general systems theory refers to the general tendency of an organization to die;

b) an open organizational system, due to the ability to borrow the necessary resources from the external environment, can counteract this tendency. This ability is called negative entropy;

c) an open organizational system shows the ability to negative entropy, and, thanks to this, some of them live for centuries;

d) for a commercial organization, the main criterion for negative entropy is its sustainable profitability over a significant time interval.

3. Feedback... Feedback is understood as information that is generated, collected, used by an open system for monitoring, evaluating, controlling and correcting its own activities. Feedback allows an organization to receive information about possible or real deviations from the intended goal and to make changes in the process of its development in time. Lack of feedback leads to pathology, crisis and organizational collapse. People in organizations that collect and analyze information, interpret it, systematize information flows, have tremendous power.

4. Open organizational systems are inherent dynamic homeostasis... All living organisms show a tendency towards inner balance and balance. The process of maintaining a balanced state by the organization itself is called dynamic homeostasis.

5. Open organizational systems are characterized by differentiation- a tendency towards growth, specialization and division of functions among the various components that form a given system. Differentiation is the system's response to a change in the external environment.

6. Equifinality... Open organizational systems are capable, in contrast to closed systems, to achieve the set goals in different ways, moving towards these goals from different starting conditions. There is not and cannot be a single and best method of achieving a goal. The goal can always be achieved in different ways, and you can move towards it at different speeds.

Let me give you an example: consider a bank from the point of view of systems theory.

Researching a bank from a systems theory perspective would begin with clarifying goals to help understand the nature of the decisions that need to be made to achieve those goals. It would be necessary to explore the external environment in order to understand the ways in which the bank interacts with its wider environment.

The researcher would then turn to the internal environment. To try to understand the main subsystems of the bank, the interaction and connections with the system as a whole, the analyst would analyze the ways of making decisions, the most important information required for making them, as well as the communication channels through which this information is transmitted.

Decision making, information system, communication channels are especially important for a systems analyst, because if they function poorly, the bank will be in a difficult position. In each area, a systematic approach has led to the emergence of new useful concepts and techniques.

Making decisions

Information systems

Communication channels

Figure 1 Systems theory - basic elements

Making decisions

In the field of decision making, systems thinking has contributed to the classification of different types of decisions. The concepts of certainty, risk and uncertainty have been developed. Logical approaches to making complex decisions were introduced (many of which had a mathematical basis), which was of great help to managers in improving the process and quality of decision-making.

Information systems

The nature of the information available to the decision maker has an important influence on the quality of the decision itself, and it is not surprising that much attention has been paid to this issue. Those who design management information systems try to give the relevant information to the right person at the right time. To do this, they need to know what decision will be made, when information will be provided, and how soon that information will arrive (if speed is an important element of decision making). Providing relevant information that improves the quality of decisions (and removes unnecessary information that simply increases costs) is essential.

Communication channels

Communication channels in an organization are important elements in the decision-making process as they convey the required information. Systems analysts have provided many useful examples of deep understanding of the interconnection process between organizations. Significant progress has been made in the study and solution of the problems of "noise" and interference in communications, the problems of transition from one system or subsystem to another.

4. The value of a systems approach in management

The value of a systems approach is that managers can more easily align their specific work with the work of the organization as a whole if they understand the system and their role in it. This is especially important for the CEO because a systems approach encourages him to maintain the necessary balance between the needs of individual departments and the goals of the entire organization. He makes him think about the flows of information passing through the entire system, and also emphasizes the importance of communication. A systems approach helps to identify the reasons for poor decisions and provides tools and techniques to improve planning and control.

A modern leader must have systemic thinking, because:

· The manager must perceive, process and systematize a huge amount of information and knowledge that are necessary for making management decisions;

· The leader needs a systematic methodology, with the help of which he could correlate one area of ​​activity of his organization with another, prevent quasi-optimization of managerial decisions;

· The manager must see the forest behind the trees, behind the private - the general, rise above everyday life and realize what place his organization occupies in the external environment, how it interacts with another, larger system, of which it is a part;

· A systematic approach to management allows the manager to more productively implement his main functions: forecasting, planning, organization, management, control.

Systems thinking not only contributed to the development of new ideas about the organization (in particular, special attention was paid to the integrated nature of the enterprise, as well as the paramount importance and importance of information systems), but also provided the development of useful mathematical tools and techniques that greatly facilitate the adoption of management decisions, the use of more advanced planning and control systems. Thus, the systematic approach allows us to comprehensively assess any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of the problems of entry, process and exit. The use of a systematic approach allows you to best organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.

Despite all the positive results, systems thinking still has not fulfilled its most important purpose. The claim that it will allow the application of modern scientific methods to management has not yet been realized. This is partly because large-scale systems are very complex. It is not easy to grasp the many ways in which the external environment influences internal organization. The interplay of many subsystems within an enterprise is not well understood. System boundaries are very difficult to establish, defining too broadly will lead to the accumulation of expensive and unusable data, and too narrowly will lead to partial problem solving. It will not be easy to formulate the questions that will arise before the enterprise, to determine with precision the information required in the future. Even if the best and most logical solution is found, it may not be feasible. Nevertheless, a systems approach provides an opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of how an enterprise works.

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