Word grab, which meant "hump", "hill", "hillock". For comparison, this is where the name of the hump-nosed pigeon breeds is derived - "mushroom".

In some Russian dialects, all mushrooms are called the word lips, but to a greater extent this refers to the popular names of some tinder fungus - "lips", "sponges". In this form, the word passed into some Slavic languages, for example, into Czech ( houby) and Slovak ( huby). Latin fungus comes from Greek σφογγος , also denoting a sponge, a porous body.

Another interpretation is produced by the word "mushroom" from the verb "row" ("row") - growing, the mushroom is "scooped out" from the ground.

A connection with Old Russian is also possible. glib- mucus, sticky substance (compare with the Lithuanian word gleivės having the same meaning). This root passed into the South Slavic languages: Slovenian gliva, Serbian gљiva... In Ukrainian gliva- the name of the oyster mushroom.

Systematic position and origin

For a long time, fungi were classified as plants with which they are brought together by the ability to grow indefinitely, the presence of a cell wall, adsorptive nutrition, for which they have a very large outer surface (and not phagocytosis and pinocytosis), and the inability to move. But due to the absence of chlorophyll, fungi are deprived of the inherent ability of plants to photosynthesize and have a heterotrophic type of nutrition characteristic of animals, they deposit glycogen, and not starch as a storage substance, the basis of the cell wall is chitin, not cellulose (except for oomycetes), are used in exchange urea - all this brings them closer to animals. They are distinguished from both animals and plants by the presence in many groups of the dikarionic phase and perforations in the intercellular septum.

As a result, fungi were recognized as a separate independent kingdom, although they are of polyphyletic origin from various flagellate and flagellate unicellular organisms. The latter gave zygomycetes, from which the higher fungi are derived. Oomycetes may have evolved from common algae. Forms similar to modern ones appeared a very long time ago; spores similar to those of saprolegnium are 185 million years old.

Structure

Most fungal cells have a cell wall; it is absent only in zoospores and vegetative cells of some primitive fungi. It consists of 80-90% of nitrogenous and nitrogen-free polysaccharides, in most cases chitin is the main polysaccharide, in oomycetes it is cellulose. Also, the composition of the cell wall includes proteins, lipids and polyphosphates. Inside there is a protoplast surrounded by a cytoplasmic membrane. The protoplast has a structure typical of eukaryotes. There are storage vacuoles containing volutin, lipids, glycogen, fatty acids (mostly unsaturated) and other substances. One or more nuclei. In different groups, different stages of ploidy prevail.

Classification

Currently, there is no generally accepted classification of fungi, therefore, the information given in the literature or other sources may differ significantly from different authors.

Asco-, basidio- and deuteromycetes are often combined into the group Higher fungi ( Dikarya).

Other small groups are also distinguished.

Role in biocenosis

Fungi can live in various environments - in soil, forest floor, in water, on decaying and living organisms. Depending on the way you consume organic matter, there are:

Meaning for a person

Food use

Edible mushrooms

In the food industry, various microscopic fungi are used: numerous yeast cultures are important for the preparation of vinegar, alcohol and various alcoholic beverages: wine, vodka, beer, koumiss, kefir, yoghurts, as well as in bakery. Molds have long been used to make cheeses (Roquefort, Camembert), as well as some wines (sherry).

Due to the fact that mushrooms have a high content of chitin, their nutritional value is low, and they are difficult for the body to assimilate. However, the nutritional value of mushrooms lies not so much in their nutritional value, but in their high aromatic and taste qualities, therefore they are used for seasonings, dressings, in dried, salted, pickled form, as well as in the form of powders.

Poisonous mushrooms

Mushrooms and preparations from them are widely used in medicine. For example, in oriental medicine, whole mushrooms are used - reishi (ganoderma), shiitake, cordyceps, etc. In folk medicine, preparations are used from porcini mushroom, jellyfish, some tinder fungus, and other species.

The list of official preparations contains numerous preparations from mushrooms:

• substances extracted from the culture medium of penicilli and other fungi (used in the production of antibiotics).

Hallucinogenic use

Some types of mushrooms contain psychoactive substances and have a hallucinogenic effect, therefore, among the ancient peoples, they were used in various rituals and initiations, in particular, fly agarics were used by shamans of some peoples of Siberia.

Application as pesticides

Micromycete-based preparations.

Many fungi are capable of interacting with other organisms through their metabolites, or by directly infecting them. The use of agricultural pesticide formulations from some of these fungi is considered as an opportunity to control the size of populations of agricultural pests such as insect pests, nematodes, or other fungi that damage plants. As biopesticides, for example, entomopathogenic fungi are used (for example, the drug Boverin from Beauveria bassiana, other drugs from Metarhizium anisopliae, Hirsutella, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and Verticillium lecanii (=Lecanicillium lecanii). Amanita has long been used as an insecticide.

Technical application

The production of citric acid on the basis of biotechnology - microbiological synthesis - is widespread.

Harm to the farm

A large number of various pathogenic fungi are known that cause diseases of plants (annually due to their fault, up to 1/3 of the crop at the root and during storage is lost), animals and humans (dermatoses, diseases of the hair, nails, respiratory and genital tract, oral cavity). They are the cause of severe food poisoning. Wood-destroying fungi cause rapid destruction of wood-based materials, buildings and products, therefore, they are considered pathogenic in forest phytopathology.

Literature

• "Funghi" - Instituto Geografico De Agostini, Novara, Italia, 1997
• Bondartseva M.A. Keys to mushrooms of Russia. The order is aphyllophoric. SPb .: Nauka, 1998. 2
• L.V. Garibova, Sidorova I. I. Mushrooms. Encyclopedia of the Nature of Russia. - M .: 1999
• Garibova L.V., Lekomtseva S.N. Fundamentals of mycology (morphology and taxonomy of fungi and fungi-like organisms). M .: KMK, 2007
• Gorlenko M.V. and etc. Mushrooms of the USSR. - M .: 1980
• Dyakov Yu., Shnyreva A., Sergeev A. Introduction to the genetics of fungi. M .: Academy, 2005
• The world of plants. in 7 volumes / Editorial board. A.L. Takhtadzhyan(Ch. Ed.) and others. T. 2. Mushrooms. / Ed. M.V. Gorlenko. 2nd ed., Rev. - M .: Education, 1991 .-- 475 p., 24 p.: Ill. - ISBN 5-09-002851-9
• Tobias A. Morphology and reproduction of fungi. Moscow: Academy, 2006
• Fedorov F.V., Mushrooms. - M., Rosagropromizdat
• Cherepanova N.P. The taxonomy of mushrooms. - SPb .: SSU Publishing House, 2005

Fungi are a separate class that unites organisms of eukaryotic structure, and also combines the characteristic features of animals and plants. To successfully practice mushroom growing, you need to know the biology of these amazing creatures.

general characteristics

In nature, there are more than two hundred thousand species of mushrooms. The class of fungi refers to organisms that are not able to form organic substances from inorganic substances. This class of plants has the following characteristics:

1. Reproduction using spores.
2. The ability to grow indefinitely.
3. Being in a vegetative state, fungi are immobile.

The mushroom is the fruiting body. It is located inside the substrate, which is composed of filaments and an underground web. The substrate is the medium through which the fruiting body receives nutrients. The filaments that are in the substrate are called hyphae.

The underground web is a mycelium or mycelium. The fruiting body has two functions: reproduction and preservation of the species. The formation of the fruiting body occurs through the connection of hyphae. As a result of such a connection, tangles are formed, which further increase, and the cells of the filaments are ordered. The growth of the substrate begins after the filament cells begin to stretch, after which the substrate breaks through with the help of the fruiting body.

Some part of the fungus is covered with a spore layer. Types of spore layer:

1. Intrafruit is a layer, the spores of which form inside the fungus.
2. Tubular is a layer, the spores of which are inside the tubules.
3. Lamellar is a layer, the spores of which are on the plates.

At the outer layer, the threads have thickened walls, as well as a dark color. The main purpose of the threads of this layer is the protective function. The threads of the inner layers form rather thin walls. Their special purpose is the conducting function. The conductive function is performed by mycelial strands and resimorphs. Mycelial strands are cordlike long formations that are located in the longitudinal direction of the filaments. Resimorphs are long tangles of fungal hyphae found in some fungi. Also, the mycelium of sclerotia is modified - these are the weaves of the mycelium, which well protect it from adverse conditions. The organs for the reproduction of the fruiting body are located on the mycelial strands.

Mushrooms propagate in the following ways:

1. Vegetative is a method of reproduction that occurs with the help of parts of the mycelium. These parts are separated, continuing their independent existence.
2. Asexual is a method of reproduction that occurs through spores. Disputes may have one, two, or several flagella, or they may not exist at all. Spores without flagella are called conidia. They are located on the conidiophore thread. Spores with flagella are called sporangia. The arrangement of spores with flagella occurs on the zoosporangium filament. With the spore method, the formation of a new mycelium rarely occurs. Because of this, the fruiting body releases a large number of spores, which are carried everywhere with the help of the wind. For a new mycelium to appear, the spore must penetrate the soil and then develop under favorable conditions. In order for the fungus to grow, it is necessary to locate two spores of different sexes in one place. As a result of spore reproduction, a primary mycelium is formed.
3. Sexual is a method of reproduction that occurs with the formation of a secondary mycelium. It is formed by the fusion of primary mycelial strands. Fruiting bodies are formed with secondary mycelium and under favorable conditions. All hereditary information is contained in the cells of the mycelium. The process of accumulation and maturation of spores takes place in the fruiting body of the fungus. Once the spores mature, they are also carried by the wind to give birth to new life.

In appearance, you might think that mushrooms and plants belong to the same species. Mushrooms and plants are different organisms that represent very different Kingdoms in nature.

Having looked even with the naked eye, it becomes clear that these are two completely different organisms. Just like people are distinguished by nationality, it seems that mushrooms and plants can be distinguished. What are the signs?

• first, the difference between fungi and plants is that fungi are simple heterotrophs or saprophytes, and plants are producers of basic elements;
• the second difference is the different sections in biology. For mushrooms - mycology, for plants - botany;
• the number of types of mushrooms is much greater than the number of types of plants;
• mushrooms reserve glycogens for themselves, and plants - starch;
• the fifth difference is that there is chitin in the membrane of the fungal cell, and cellulose is included in most of the membranes of plant cells;
• the last difference is that by dying, mushrooms become a good breed for plants, and the latter, which die off, become the basis of the basic elements for mushrooms.

Mushrooms, very adapted to different living environments. They can live even where there is no oxygen at all. Mushrooms are very different and have varying degrees of life enterprise.

The outstanding difference between plants from all others is their bright green color, which is given by chloroplasts. The elements that the plants have received, they collect in the type of starch. A lot of plant cells are covered with dense cellulose membranes. Plants are a kingdom that cannot do without natural light and water.

We are used to naming boletus mushrooms, which look great on the dinner table. But we only talk about their real nature in botany lessons or in the case of rare "pseudo-scientific" conversations. The structure, the way of existence, and even more so the reproduction of mushrooms for the majority of the population remain "a mystery covered in darkness." Yes, the topic is special. But it is desirable for an educated person to have a minimal understanding of everything. Is not it?

Description of a living organism

Before we delve into the entertaining and confusing topic of "Mushroom Breeding Methods", let's find out what they are. This is important and very

interesting. Looking ahead, we say that the reproduction of mushrooms is not an easy process. It's like this - in two words, you can't describe it. But let's start in order. Fungi are living organisms that share the traits of both plants and animals. A kind of symbiosis of both. Their kingdom is huge! It includes the fungi and mycoids themselves (the so-called mushroom-like organisms). Currently, more than one hundred thousand of their species are known, although scientists are sure that they have studied only a third of those existing in nature. This hypothesis can hardly be questioned, since the existence and reproduction of fungi, as it turns out, can take place in the most difficult and unimaginable conditions. Science has come to the conclusion that these have no roots in common with plants. They came from special microorganisms that lived in the ocean. With plants, fungi are brought together by the structure of the cell wall, stationarity, the ability to reproduce by spores, and the synthesis of vitamins. They also absorb nutrients from the soil. They also have similarities with animals. Namely: mushrooms accumulate glycogen in the form of a reserve, secrete urea, and are not able to create nutrients themselves.

A little about the structure

To imagine the reproduction of mushrooms, you need to know what they look like. After all, it is not clear what exactly will be recreated. Mushrooms are mostly composed of a vegetative body. This is not at all what we see and collect. This organism is actually a huge mass of thin, colorless filaments, called "mycelium" or "mycelium". It is divided into two parts.

Since this is a whole separate world of living organisms that do not have "relatives" in the environment of animals and plants, then it exists in its own way. Reproduction of fungi can be sexual, asexual, or vegetative. Some of their species give birth to their own kind by budding. That is, almost all methods known to science are available. If we consider in more detail, then here too there are some peculiarities and nuances.

So, the fungus occurs in the mycelium. A single cell of this thread can form a separate organism. In addition, in order to "continue the race", these organisms create special processes - the reproductive organ. In mushrooms, it appears mainly during the warm, humid period. Those elements from which a new organism can develop are called diaspora.

Vegetative propagation of mushrooms

These organisms can even emerge from a single cell, which is a diaspora. Most often, a part is separated from the mycelium, which becomes an independent organism. With this method, a reproductive organ is not needed. Mushrooms have just a part

the mycelium is separated from the main organism, buds off, so to speak. A new one grows out of it. Also, the mycelium of some species can form oidia (light filaments). A new organism emerges from them. This is a kind of transitional form from vegetative to asexual reproduction. It will not work to see this process in nature. Everything happens in the soil (the environment where the mycelium grows).

Asexual reproduction

This process is more open. It is carried out through a dispute. They are very small and lightweight. They do not sink in water, are carried by the wind, adhere to animal hair. So they travel. Once in suitable conditions, they begin to develop. Disputes are divided into resting and propagative, mobile and motionless. Poorly organized mushrooms are equipped with a more aggressive reproduction mechanism. They are characterized by mobile spores equipped with a flagellum. They can fly up to thousands of kilometers. Asexual reproduction of fungi, to which we are accustomed, occurs through immobile spores. They are also different. For simplicity, we divide them into endogenous and exogenous. The former are formed inside the sporangia. Such spores have a dense shell. The amount depends on the specific type of mushroom. Some mushrooms have only one spore (conidia). The methods of their formation are very diverse. For the most part, they form on the tops of conidiophores.

Sexual reproduction

There are variations here too. fungi can pass in various ways associated with the formation of a zygote. One of them is gametogamy. This method is typical for low-organized mushrooms. It can be interpreted as

fusion of two cells (gametes). In some species, they are the same, in others, they differ in size. Gametes also differ in mobility. That is, nature "trained" on mushrooms, developing methods of reproduction. These types of organisms lack traditional oogamy (immobile female and mobile male cells). Sexual reproduction of fungi can take place in the form of gametogamy. This method is typical for highly organized organisms. Somatogamy is most typical for sexual reproduction in fungi. The process consists in the fact that the spores germinate and merge with membranes, then with nuclei. A new organism develops from them.

About cap mushrooms

The theory is, of course, interesting, but in order to understand the processes, it is desirable to "feel" an example. Consider breeding Them is something we can see and explore. What people collect for food is called fruiting bodies. Their mushrooms are grown for the purpose of organizing the breeding process. In science, they are also called "sporulation organs". They consist of a cap and a stem, which are dense bundles of hyphae. Disputes are at the top. The hat has two compartments. The top is dense, covered with colored skin. The bottom layer is hidden under it. In some species it is lamellar, in others it is tubular. Spores rest in this layer.

For example, russula and champignons have a lamellar structure, while boletus and boletus mushrooms have a tubular structure. In this layer, up to millions of spores mature. They spill out on the soil, are carried by the wind or animals, insects, water. This is the process of reproduction.

Why mushrooms are cut, not plucked

Since people are engaged in the collection of "sporulation organs", then, against their will, they interfere in the process of reproduction of these organisms. If you just pick up a "bag of seeds", then a new mushroom will grow. In fact, it is huge and creates not one, but

many "sporulation organs". And when we pull out a mushroom or boletus, we cause enormous damage to the mycelium (the mushroom itself). It takes a long time to restore it. It may turn out that in a given area it will not grow. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully trim the stem so as not to harm the mycelium.

Scientists are very closely involved in the study of these living organisms. They are not just watched, many experiments are carried out with them. Some of which are shocking. So, it is known that Japanese researchers came to the conclusion about the intelligence of yellow yeast. They conducted an experiment in which they forced this organism to grow in a "maze" where sugar was hidden. It turned out that the yellow mold "remembers" the path it took to get to the treat. The scion taken from this organism grew straight to the place where the sugar was! But this is just the simplest mushroom that reproduces vegetatively.

How does fungus multiply? What is the function of the fruiting body and what does it consist of. What are the ways of propagation of mushrooms.

Do you know how mushrooms multiply and what harmful mushrooms contain? At first glance, everything is simple: young mushrooms appear from the ground, and mold appears by itself.

But not everything in Nature is simple and unambiguous. An important process of reproduction takes place with the assistance of small pieces of mycelium, spores, lumps of tightly woven neck and some other elements.

What are the ways in which fungi multiply.

Nature decreed that these ancient inhabitants of the Earth learned to reproduce sexually, asexually and vegetatively.

1. Sexual reproduction is characteristic of higher fungi. New life arises when the male and female hyphae merge. This is how the primary mycelium appears. Further, when the two primary ones merge, a secondary mycelium appears. With sufficient moisture, a fruit body grows from the secondary mycelium. Spores appear and mature in the fruiting body. This is how complicated it is.
2. With the asexual method, reproduction occurs by budding or sporulation. For example, yeast fungi reproduce by budding - cell division. This is how bacteria multiply. When multiplying by spores, several factors must coincide: suitable soil, external favorable conditions and the presence of two opposite-sex spores. Such coincidences happen quite rarely, so the number of spores from one mushroom is several billion pieces.
3. Reproduction in a vegetative way is carried out by separate particles of the mycelium. Small particles are separated from the bulk and begin an independent life.

Reproduction of cap mushrooms.

How do boletus, chanterelles and boletus boletus breed? It should be noted that the mushroom itself is a reproductive organ. And the most important part of the mushroom - the mycelium is hidden underground. Curious mushroom pickers probably saw white thin threads extending from the fruit body.

The mycelium consists of cells that have two nuclei. When a certain time comes, a fruiting body grows from the mycelium. By the way, the cap and the stem of the fruiting body are completely composed of mycelium filaments. However, the cap has two layers: an upper leathery layer and a lower one. The bottom layer can have many small tubes or many thin plates. It is on the bottom layer of the cap that numerous spores form. When ripe, the spores are carried by the wind and forest dwellers over long distances.

Under favorable conditions, the spores germinate and form a hyphae. Gradually, the hyphae grows and turns into a mycelium. The mycelium is actually the mushroom itself. The mycelium grows gradually and can live for many years. Near cities, the soil becomes contaminated with toxic industrial waste and the mycelium dies. Therefore, the number of edible mushrooms in our forests is decreasing.

In fungi, vegetative propagation can be carried out by body parts or by spores. Its most primitive form is the reproduction of hyphae particles, as well as sclerotia, cords, and rhizomorphs. Separating from the mother's mycelium and getting into a favorable environment, they give rise to a new organism.

One of the forms of vegetative reproduction is the formation of chlamydospores and oidia. Chlamydospores appear when the contents of certain mycelium cells are compacted and separated. At the same time, they are covered with a dark-colored dense shell. Chlamydospores can persist for a long time in unfavorable conditions after separation from the cells of the maternal hyphae. When they germinate, they form mycelium or sporulation organs.

Oidia appear after the disintegration of hyphae into separate segments, they are short-lived and provided with a thin shell. Subsequently, they give rise to a new mycelium. One of their varieties is gems with a denser, darker shell that can persist in winter.

Some fungi reproduce by budding cells, a process typical of yeasts. At first, they have small outgrowths, gradually they increase in size and are separated from the mother cell, after which they begin to bud. These cells are blastospores.

Reproductive reproduction of fungi

Reproductive reproduction occurs with the help of spores, they can form on the surface of special organs or inside them. In their structure, spores differ from vegetative hyphae. Asexual reproductive reproduction takes place with the formation of spores; during sexual reproduction, the appearance of spores is preceded by the sexual process.

Most often, asexual reproduction begins on a well-developed mycelium with sufficient nutrients. In this process, spore-bearing organs are areas of hyphae or their special assignments. The formation of zoosporangia is the simplest form of asexual reproduction. Zoospores retain their only in water, they have one or two flagella, with which they can move.

The sexual process of fungi is very diverse; in its simplest form, it is a fusion of two identical in shape opposite-sex zoospores. Zygogamy and oogamy are more complex processes. In the first case, the contents of two externally identical germ cells of heterosexual mycelium are combined, with oogamy, germ cells of different structure are laid on the mycelium - oogony (female) and antheridium (male). When their contents are drained, an oospore is formed.